the story of mankind-第44章

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chief　and　the　Streltsi　were　hanged　and　quartered　and　killed　to

the　last　man。　Sister　Sophia；　who　had　been　the　head　of　the

rebellion；　was　locked　up　in　a　cloister　and　the　rule　of　Peter　be…

gan　in　earnest。　This　scene　was　repeated　in　the　year　1716　when

Peter　had　gone　on　his　second　western　trip。　That　time　the

reactionaries　followed　the　leadership　of　Peter's　half…witted

son；　Alexis。　Again　the　Tsar　returned　in　great　haste。　Alexis

was　beaten　to　death　in　his　prison　cell　and　the　friends　of　the

old　fashioned　Byzantine　ways　marched　thousands　of　dreary

miles　to　their　final　destination　in　the　Siberian　lead　mines。

After　that；　no　further　outbreaks　of　popular　discontent　took

place。　Until　the　time　of　his　death；　Peter　could　reform　in　peace。



It　is　not　easy　to　give　you　a　list　of　his　reforms　in　chronological

order。　The　Tsar　worked　with　furious　haste。　He　followed

no　system。　He　issued　his　decrees　with　such　rapidity　that　it　is

difficult　to　keep　count。　Peter　seemed　to　feel　that　everything

that　had　ever　happened　before　was　entirely　wrong。　The　whole

of　Russia　therefore　must　be　changed　within　the　shortest　possible

time。　When　he　died　he　left　behind　a　well…trained　army　of

200；000　men　and　a　navy　of　fifty　ships。　The　old　system　of　government

had　been　abolished　over　night。　The　Duma；　or　convention

of　Nobles；　had　been　dismissed　and　in　its　stead；　the　Tsar

had　surrounded　himself　with　an　advisory　board　of　state　officials；

called　the　Senate。



Russia　was　divided　into　eight　large　‘‘governments''　or　provinces。

Roads　were　constructed。　Towns　were　built。　Industries

were　created　wherever　it　pleased　the　Tsar；　without　any　regard

for　the　presence　of　raw　material。　Canals　were　dug　and　mines

were　opened　in　the　mountains　of　the　east。　In　this　land　of　illiterates；

schools　were　founded　and　establishments　of　higher　learning；

together　with　Universities　and　hospitals　and　professional

schools。　Dutch　naval　engineers　and　tradesmen　and　artisans

from　all　over　the　world　were　encouraged　to　move　to　Russia。

Printing　shops　were　established；　but　all　books　must　be　first　read

by　the　imperial　censors。　The　duties　of　each　class　of　society

were　carefully　written　down　in　a　new　law　and　the　entire　system

of　civil　and　criminal　laws　was　gathered　into　a　series　of　printed

volumes。　The　old　Russian　costumes　were　abolished　by　Imperial

decree；　and　policemen；　armed　with　scissors；　watching

all　the　country　roads；　changed　the　long…haired　Russian　mou…

jiks　suddenly　into　a　pleasing　imitation　of　smooth…shaven　west。

Europeans。



In　religious　matters；　the　Tsar　tolerated　no　division　of

power。　There　must　be　no　chance　of　a　rivalry　between　an

Emperor　and　a　Pope　as　had　happened　in　Europe。　In　the　year

1721；　Peter　made　himself　head　of　the　Russian　Church。　The

Patriarchate　of　Moscow　was　abolished　and　the　Holy　Synod

made　its　appearance　as　the　highest　source　of　authority　in　all

matters　of　the　Established　Church。



Since；　however；　these　many　reforms　could　not　be　success…

ful　while　the　old　Russian　elements　had　a　rallying　point　in　the

town　of　Moscow；　Peter　decided　to　move　his　government　to　a

new　capital。　Amidst　the　unhealthy　marshes　of　the　Baltic　Sea

the　Tsar　built　this　new　city。　He　began　to　reclaim　the　land　in

the　year　1703。　Forty　thousand　peasants　worked　for　years

to　lay　the　foundations　for　this　Imperial　city。　The　Swedes

attacked　Peter　and　tried　to　destroy　his　town　and　illness　and

misery　killed　tens　of　thousands　of　the　peasants。　But　the　work

was　continued；　winter　and　summer；　and　the　ready…made　town

soon　began　to　grow。　In　the　year　1712；　it　was　officially　de…

clared　to　be　the　‘‘Imperial　Residence。''　A　dozen　years　later

it　had　75；000　inhabitants。　Twice　a　year　the　whole　city　was

flooded　by　the　Neva。　But　the　terrific　will…power　of　the　Tsar

created　dykes　and　canals　and　the　floods　ceased　to　do　harm。

When　Peter　died　in　1725　he　was　the　owner　of　the　largest　city

in　northern　Europe。



Of　course；　this　sudden　growth　of　so　dangerous　a　rival　had

been　a　source　of　great　worry　to　all　the　neighbours。　From　his

side；　Peter　had　watched　with　interest　the　many　adventures　of

his　Baltic　rival；　the　kingdom　of　Sweden。　In　the　year　1654；

Christina；　the　only　daughter　of　Gustavus　Adolphus；　the　hero

of　the　Thirty　Years　War；　had　renounced　the　throne　and　had

gone　to　Rome　to　end　her　days　as　a　devout　Catholic。　A　Protestant

nephew　of　Gustavus　Adolphus　had　succeeded　the　last

Queen　of　the　House　of　Vasa。　Under　Charles　X　and　Charles

XI；　the　new　dynasty　had　brought　Sweden　to　its　highest　point

of　development。　But　in　1697；　Charles　XI　died　suddenly　and

was　succeeded　by　a　boy　of　fifteen；　Charles　XII。



This　was　the　moment　for　which　many　of　the　northern　states

had　waited。　During　the　great　religious　wars　of　the　seventeenth

century；　Sweden　had　grown　at　the　expense　of　her　neighbours。

The　time　had　come；　so　the　owners　thought；　to　balance　the　account。

At　once　war　broke　out　between　Russia；　Poland；　Denmark

and　Saxony　on　the　one　side；　and　Sweden　on　the　other。

The　raw　and　untrained　armies　of　Peter　were　disastrously　beaten

by　Charles　in　the　famous　battle　of　Narva　in　November　of

the　year　1700。　Then　Charles；　one　of　the　most　interesting　military

geniuses　of　that　century；　turned　against　his　other　enemies

and　for　nine　years　he　hacked　and　burned　his　way　through　the

villages　and　cities　of　Poland；　Saxony；　Denmark　and　the　Baltic

provinces；　while　Peter　drilled　and　trained　his　soldiers　in　distant

Russia。



As　a　result；　in　the　year　1709；　in　the　battle　of　Poltawa；　the

Moscovites　destroyed　the　exhausted　armies　of　Sweden。　Charles

continued　to　be　a　highly　picturesque　figure；　a　wonderful　hero

of　romance；　but　in　his　vain　attempt　to　have　his　revenge；　he

ruined　his　own　country。　In　the　year　1718；　he　was　accidentally

killed　or　assassinated　（we　do　not　know　which）　and　when　peace

was　made　in　1721；　in　the　town　of　Nystadt；　Sweden　had　lost　all

of　her　former　Baltic　possessions　except　Finland。　The　new

Russian　state；　created　by　Peter；　had　become　the　leading　power

of　northern　Europe。　But　already　a　new　rival　was　on　the

way。　The　Prussian　state　was　taking　shape。







THE　RISE　OF　PRUSSIA



THE　EXTRAORDINARY　RISE　OF　A　LITTLE

STATE　IN　A　DREARY　PART　OF　NORTHERN

GERMANY；　CALLED　PRUSSIA





THE　history　of　Prussia　is　the　history　of　a　frontier　district。

In　the　ninth　century；　Charlemagne　had　transferred　the　old

centre　of　civilisation　from　the　Mediterranean　to　the　wild　regions

of　northwestern　Europe。　His　Frankish　soldiers　had　pushed

the　frontier　of　Europe　further　and　further　towards　the　east。

They　had　conquered　many　lands　from　the　heathenish　Slavs　and

Lithuanians　who　were　living　in　the　plain　between　the　Baltic

Sea　and　the　Carpathian　Mountains；　and　the　Franks　administered

those　outlying　districts　just　as　the　United　States　used

to　administer　her　territories　before　they　achieved　the　dignity

of　statehood。



The　frontier　state　of　Brandenburg　had　been　originally

founded　by　Charlemagne　to　defend　his　eastern　possessions

against　raids　of　the　wild　Saxon　tribes。　The　Wends；　a　Slavic

tribe　which　inhabited　that　region；　were　subjugated　during　the

tenth　century　and　their　market…place；　by　the　name　of　Brennabor；

became　the　centre　of　and　gave　its　name　to　the　new　province

of　Brandenburg。



During　the　eleventh；　twelfth；　thirteenth　and　fourteenth

centuries；　a　succession　of　noble　families　exercised　the　functions　of

imperial　governor　in　this　frontier　state。　Finally　in　the

fifteenth　century；　the　House　of　Hohenzollern　made　its　appear…

ance；　and　as　Electors　of　Brandenburg；　commenced　to　change　a

sandy　and　forlorn　frontier　territory　into　one　of　the　most　efficient

empires　of　the　modern　world。



These　Hohenzollerns；　who　have　just　been　removed　from

the　historical　stage　by　the　combined　forces　of　Europe　and

America；　came　originally　from　southern　Germany。　They　were

of　very　humble　origin。　In　the　twelfth　century　a　certain　Frederick

of　Hohenzollern　had　made　a　lucky　marriage　and　had　been

appointed　keeper　of　the　castle　of　Nuremberg。　His　descendants

had　used　every　chance　and　every　opportunity　to　improve　their

power　and　after　several　centuries　of　watchful　grabbing；　they

had　been　appointed　to　the　dignity　of　Elector；　the　name　given　to

those　sovereign　princes　who　were　supposed　to　elect　the　Emperors

of　the　old　German　Empire。　During　the　Reformation；

they　had　taken　the　side　of　the　Protestants　and　the　early

seventeenth　century　found　them　among　the　most　powerful　of　the

north　German　princes。



During　the　Thirty　Years　War；　both　Protestants　and

Catholics　had　plundered　Brandenburg　and　Prussia　with　equal

zeal。　But　under　Frederick　William；　the　Great　Elector；　the

damage　was　quickly　repaired　and　by　a　wise　and　careful　use　of

all　the　economic　and　intellectual　forces　of　the　country；　a　state

was　founded　in　which　there　was　practically　no　waste。



Modern　Prussia；　a　state　in　which　the　individual　and　his

wishes　and　aspirations　have　been　entirely　absorbed　by　the

interests　of　the　community　as　a　whole　this　Prussia　dates　back

to　the　father　of　Frederick　the　Great。　Frederick　William　I　was

a　hard　working；　parsimonious　Prussian　sergeant；　with　a　great

love　for　bar…room　stories　and　strong　Dutch　tobacco；　an　intense

dislike　of　all　frills　and　feathers；　（especially　if　they　were　of

French　origin；）　and　possessed　of　but　one　idea。　That　idea　was

Duty。　Severe　with　himself；　he　tolerated　no　weakness　in　his

subjects；　whether　they　be　generals　or　common　soldiers。　The

relation　between　himself　and　his　son　Frederick　was　never　cordial；

to　say　the　least。　The　boorish　manners　of　the　father　offended

the　finer　spirit　of　the　son。　The　son's　love　for　French

manners；　literature；　philosophy　and　music　was　rejected　by　the

father　as　a　manifestation　of　sissy…ness。　There　followed　a　terrible

outbreak　between　these　two　strange　temperaments。　Frederick

tried　to　escape　to　England。　He　was　caught　and　court…

martialed　and　forced　to　witness　the　decapitation　of　his　best

friend　who　had　tried　to　help　him。　Thereupon　as　part　of　his

punishment；　the　young　prince　was　sent　to　a　little　fortress

somewhere　in　the　provinces　to　be　taught　the　details　of　his　future

business　of　being　a　king。　It　proved　a　blessing　in　disguise。

When　Frederick　came　to　the　throne　in　1740；　he　knew　how　his

country　was　managed　from　the　birth　certificate　of　a　pauper's

son　to　the　minutest　detail　of　a　complicated　annual　Budget。



As　an　author；　especially　in　his　book　called　the　‘‘Anti…

Macchiavelli；''　Frederick　had　expressed　his　contempt　for　the

political　creed　of　the　ancient　Florentine　historian；　who　had

advised　his　princely　pupils　to　lie　and　cheat　whenever　it　was

necessary　to　do　so　for　the　benefit　of　their　country。　The　ideal

ruler　in　Frederick's　volume　was　the　first　servant　of　his　people；

the　enlightened　despot　after　the　example　of　Louis　XIV。　In

practice；　however；　Frederick；　while　working　for　his　people

twenty　hours　a　day；　tolerated　no　one　to　be　near　him　as　a

counsellor。　His　ministers　were　superior　clerks。　Prussia　was　his

p