the story of mankind-第56章

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others　marks　the　difference　between　a　dog…kennel　and　civilised

society。　But　he　does　not　recognize　the　right　of　others　to　interfere

with　his　freedom　of　thought。　If　his　country　does　something

which　he　believes　to　be　wrong；　he　gets　up　and　says　so

and　the　government　which　he　attacks　will　respect　him　and　will

give　him　full　protection　against　the　mob　which　to…day；　as　in

the　time　of　Socrates；　often　loves　to　destroy　those　who　surpass

it　in　courage　or　intelligence。　There　never　has　been　a　good

cause；　however　unpopular　or　however　distant；　which　has　not

counted　a　number　of　Englishmen　among　its　staunchest　adherents。

The　mass　of　the　English　people　are　not　different　from

those　in　other　lands。　They　stick　to　the　business　at　hand　and

have　no　time　for　unpractical　‘‘sporting　ventures。''　But　they

rather　admire　their　eccentric　neighbour　who　drops　everything

to　go　and　fight　for　some　obscure　people　in　Asia　or　Africa　and

when　he　has　been　killed　they　give　him　a　fine　public　funeral　and

hold　him　up　to　their　children　as　an　example　of　valor　and　chivalry。



Even　the　police　spies　of　the　Holy　Alliance　were　powerless

against　this　national　characteristic。　In　the　year　1824；　Lord

Byron；　a　rich　young　Englishman　who　wrote　the　poetry　over

which　all　Europe　wept；　hoisted　the　sails　of　his　yacht　and　started

south　to　help　the　Greeks。　Three　months　later　the　news　spread

through　Europe　that　their　hero　lay　dead　in　Missolonghi；

the　last　of　the　Greek　strongholds。　His　lonely　death

caught　the　imagination　of　the　people。　In　all　countries；　societies

were　formed　to　help　the　Greeks。　Lafayette；　the　grand　old

man　of　the　American　revolution；　pleaded　their　cause　in　France。

The　king　of　Bavaria　sent　hundreds　of　his　officers。　Money　and

supplies　poured　in　upon　the　starving　men　of　Missolonghi。



In　England；　George　Canning；　who　had　defeated　the　plans

of　the　Holy　Alliance　in　South　America；　was　now　prime　minis…

ter。　He　saw　his　chance　to　checkmate　Metternich　for　a　second

time。　The　English　and　Russian　fleets　were　already　in　the

Mediterranean。　They　were　sent　by　governments　which　dared

no　longer　suppress　the　popular　enthusiasm　for　the　cause　of　the

Greek　patriots。　The　French　navy　appeared　because　France；

since　the　end　of　the　Crusades；　had　assumed　the　role　of　the

defender　of　the　Christian　faith　in　Mohammedan　lands。　On　October

20　of　the　year　1827；　the　ships　of　the　three　nations　attacked

the　Turkish　fleet　in　the　bay　of　Navarino　and　destroyed　it。

Rarely　has　the　news　of　a　battle　been　received　with　such　general

rejoicing。　The　people　of　western　Europe　and　Russia　who

enjoyed　no　freedom　at　home　consoled　themselves　by　fighting

an　imaginary　war　of　liberty　on　behalf　of　the　oppressed　Greeks。

In　the　year　1829　they　had　their　reward。　Greece　became　an

independent　nation　and　the　policy　of　reaction　and　stability

suffered　its　second　great　defeat。



It　would　be　absurd　were　I　to　try；　in　this　short　volume；　to

give　you　a　detailed　account　of　the　struggle　for　national

independence　in　all　other　countries。　There　are　a　large　number　of

excellent　books　devoted　to　such　subjects。　I　have　described　the

struggle　for　the　independence　of　Greece　because　it　was　the　first

successful　attack　upon　the　bulwark　of　reaction　which　the　Congress

of　Vienna　had　erected　to　‘‘maintain　the　stability　of　Europe。''

That　mighty　fortress　of　suppression　still　held　out　and

Metternich　continued　to　be　in　command。　But　the　end　was

near。



In　France　the　Bourbons　had　established　an　almost　unbearable

rule　of　police　officials　who　were　trying　to　undo　the　work

of　the　French　revolution；　with　an　absolute　disregard　of　the

regulations　and　laws　of　civilised　warfare。　When　Louis

XVIII　died　in　the　year　1824；　the　people　had　enjoyed　nine

years　of　‘‘peace''　which　had　proved　even　more　unhappy　than

the　ten　years　of　war　of　the　Empire。　Louis　was　succeeded　by

his　brother；　Charles　X。



Louis　had　belonged　to　that　famous　Bourbon　family　which；

although　it　never　learned　anything；　never　forgot　anything。

The　recollection　of　that　morning　in　the　town　of　Hamm；　when

news　had　reached　him　of　the　decapitation　of　his　brother；

remained　a　constant　warning　of　what　might　happen　to　those

kings　who　did　not　read　the　signs　of　the　times　aright。　Charles；

on　the　other　hand；　who　had　managed　to　run　up　private　debts　of

fifty　million　francs　before　he　was　twenty　years　of　age；　knew

nothing；　remembered　nothing　and　firmly　intended　to　learn

nothing。　As　soon　as　he　had　succeeded　his　brother；　he　established

a　government　‘‘by　priests；　through　priests　and　for

priests；''　and　while　the　Duke　of　Wellington；　who　made　this　remark；

cannot　be　called　a　violent　liberal；　Charles　ruled　in　such

a　way　that　he　disgusted　even　that　trusted　friend　of　law　and

order。　When　he　tried　to　suppress　the　newspapers　which　dared

to　criticise　his　government；　and　dismissed　the　Parliament　because

it　supported　the　Press；　his　days　were　numbered。



On　the　night　of　the　27th　of　July　of　the　year　1830；　a　revolution

took　place　in　Paris。　On　the　30th　of　the　same　month；　the

king　fled　to　the　coast　and　set　sail　for　England。　In　this　way

the　‘‘famous　farce　of　fifteen　years''　came　to　an　end　and　the

Bourbons　were　at　last　removed　from　the　throne　of　France。

They　were　too　hopelessly　incompetent。　France　then　might

have　returned　to　a　Republican　form　of　government；　but　such

a　step　would　not　have　been　tolerated　by　Metternich。



The　situation　was　dangerous　enough。　The　spark　of　rebellion

had　leaped　beyond　the　French　frontier　and　had　set　fire　to

another　powder　house　filled　with　national　grievances。　The　new

kingdom　of　the　Netherlands　had　not　been　a　success。　The　Belgian

and　the　Dutch　people　had　nothing　in　common　and　their

king；　William　of　Orange　（the　descendant　of　an　uncle　of　William

the　Silent）；　while　a　hard　worker　and　a　good　business　man；

was　too　much　lacking　in　tact　and　pliability　to　keep　the　peace

among　his　uncongenial　subjects。　Besides；　the　horde　of　priests

which　had　descended　upon　France；　had　at　once　found　its　way

into　Belgium　and　whatever　Protestant　William　tried　to　do　was

howled　down　by　large　crowds　of　excited　citizens　as　a　fresh　attempt

upon　the　‘‘freedom　of　the　Catholic　church。''　On　the　25th

of　August　there　was　a　popular　outbreak　against　the　Dutch

authorities　in　Brussels。　Two　months　later；　the　Belgians

declared　themselves　independent　and　elected　Leopold　of　Coburg；

the　uncle　of　Queen　Victoria　of　England；　to　the　throne。

That　was　an　excellent　solution　of　the　difficulty。　The　two

countries；　which　never　ought　to　have　been　united；　parted　their

ways　and　thereafter　lived　in　peace　and　harmony　and　behaved

like　decent　neighbours。



News　in　those　days　when　there　were　only　a　few　short　railroads；

travelled　slowly；　but　when　the　success　of　the　French

and　the　Belgian　revolutionists　became　known　in　Poland　there

was　an　immediate　clash　between　the　Poles　and　their　Russian

rulers　which　led　to　a　year　of　terrible　warfare　and　ended　with　a

complete　victory　for　the　Russians　who　‘‘established　order　along

the　banks　of　the　Vistula''　in　the　well…known　Russian　fashion

Nicholas　the　first；　who　had　succeeded　his　brother　Alexander　in

1825；　firmly　believed　in　the　Divine　Right　of　his　own　family；

and　the　thousands　of　Polish　refugees　who　had　found　shelter

in　western　Europe　bore　witness　to　the　fact　that　the　principles

of　the　Holy　Alliance　were　still　more　than　a　hollow　phrase　in

Holy　Russia。



In　Italy　too　there　was　a　moment　of　unrest。　Marie　Louise

Duchess　of　Parma　and　wife　of　the　former　Emperor　Napoleon；

whom　she　had　deserted　after　the　defeat　of　Waterloo；　was

driven　away　from　her　country；　and　in　the　Papal　state　the

exasperated　people　tried　to　establish　an　independent　Republic。

But　the　armies　of　Austria　marched　to　Rome　and　soon　every

thing　was　as　of　old。　Metternich　continued　to　reside　at　the　Ball

Platz；　the　home　of　the　foreign　minister　of　the　Habsburg

dynasty；　the　police　spies　returned　to　their　job；　and　peace

reigned　supreme。　Eighteen　more　years　were　to　pass　before　a

second　and　more　successful　attempt　could　be　made　to　deliver

Europe　from　the　terrible　inheritance　of　the　Vienna　Congress。



Again　it　was　France；　the　revolutionary　weather…cock　of

Europe；　which　gave　the　signal　of　revolt。　Charles　X　had　been

succeeded　by　Louis　Philippe；　the　son　of　that　famous　Duke　of

Orleans　who　had　turned　Jacobin；　had　voted　for　the　death　of　his

cousin　the　king；　and　had　played　a　role　during　the　early　days

of　the　revolution　under　the　name　of　‘‘Philippe　Egalite''　or

‘‘Equality　Philip。''　Eventually　he　had　been　killed　when

Robespierre　tried　to　purge　the　nation　of　all　‘‘traitors；''　（by

which　name　he　indicated　those　people　who　did　not　share　his　own

views）　and　his　son　had　been　forced　to　run　away　from　the

revolutionary　army。　Young　Louis　Philippe　thereupon　had

wandered　far　and　wide。　He　had　taught　school　in　Switzerland

and　had　spent　a　couple　of　years　exploring　the　unknown　‘‘far

west''　of　America。　After　the　fall　of　Napoleon　he　had　returned

to　Paris。　He　was　much　more　intelligent　than　his　Bourbon

cousins。　He　was　a　simple　man　who　went　about　in　the　public

parks　with　a　red　cotton　umbrella　under　his　arm；　followed　by　a

brood　of　children　like　any　good　housefather。　But　France　had

outgrown　the　king　business　and　Louis　did　not　know　this　until

the　morning　of　the　24th　of　February；　of　the　year　1848；　when

a　crowd　stormed　the　Tuilleries　and　drove　his　Majesty　away　and

proclaimed　the　Republic。



When　the　news　of　this　event　reached　Vienna；　Metternich

expressed　the　casual　opinion　that　this　was　only　a　repetition

of　the　year　1793　and　that　the　Allies　would　once　more　be　obliged

to　march　upon　Paris　and　make　an　end　to　this　very　unseemly

democratic　row。　But　two　weeks　later　his　own　Austrian　capital

was　in　open　revolt。　Metternich　escaped　from　the　mob　through

the　back　door　of　his　palace；　and　the　Emperor　Ferdinand　was

forced　to　give　his　subjects　a　constitution　which　embodied　most

of　the　revolutionary　principles　which　his　Prime　Minister　had

tried　to　suppress　for　the　last　thirty…three　years。



This　time　all　Europe　felt　the　shock。　Hungary　declared　itself

independent；　and　commenced　a　war　against　the　Habsburgs

under　the　leadership　of　Louis　Kossuth。　The　unequal

struggle　lasted　more　than　a　year。　It　was　finally　suppressed　by

the　armies　of　Tsar　Nicholas　who　marched　across　the　Carpathian

mountains　and　made　Hungary　once　more　safe　for　autocracy。

The　Habsburgs　thereupon　established　extraordinary

court…martials　and　hanged　the　greater　part　of　the　Hungarian

patriots　whom　they　had　not　been　able　to　defeat　in　open　battle。



As　for　Italy；　the　island　of　Sicily　declared　itself　independent

from　Naples　and　drove　its　Bourbon　king　away。　In　the　Papal

states　the　prime　minister；　Rossi；　was　murdered　and　the　Pope

was　forced　to　flee。　He　returned　the　next　year　at　the　head　of　a

French　army　which　remained　in　Rome　to　protect　His　Holiness

against　his　subjects　until　the　year　1870。　Then　it　was

called　back　to　defend　France　against　the　Prussians；　and

Rome　became　the　capital　of