the story of mankind-第57章

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against　his　subjects　until　the　year　1870。　Then　it　was

called　back　to　defend　France　against　the　Prussians；　and

Rome　became　the　capital　of　Italy。　In　the　north；　Milan　and

Venice　rose　against　their　Austrian　masters。　They　were　supported

by　king　Albert　of　Sardinia；　but　a　strong　Austrian　army

under　old　Radetzky　marched　into　the　valley　of　the　Po；　defeated

the　Sardinians　near　Custozza　and　Novara　and　forced

Albert　to　abdicate　in　favour　of　his　son；　Victor　Emanuel；　who

a　few　years　later　was　to　be　the　first　king　of　a　united　Italy。



In　Germany　the　unrest　of　the　year　1848　took　the　form　of　a

great　national　demonstration　in　favour　of　political　unity　and　a

representative　form　of　government。　In　Bavaria；　the　king　who

had　wasted　his　time　and　money　upon　an　Irish　lady　who　posed　as

a　Spanish　dancer（she　was　called　Lola　Montez　and　lies　buried

in　New　York's　Potter's　Field）was　driven　away　by　the　enraged

students　of　the　university。　In　Prussia；　the　king　was

forced　to　stand　with　uncovered　head　before　the　coffins　of　those

who　had　been　killed　during　the　street　fighting　and　to　promise　a

constitutional　form　of　government。　And　in　March　of　the　year

1849；　a　German　parliament；　consisting　of　550　delegates　from

all　parts　of　the　country　came　together　in　Frankfort　and　proposed

that　king　Frederick　William　of　Prussia　should　be　the

Emperor　of　a　United　Germany。



Then；　however；　the　tide　began　to　turn。　Incompetent　Ferdinand

had　abdicated　in　favour　of　his　nephew　Francis　Joseph。

The　well…drilled　Austrian　army　had　remained　faithful　to　their

war…lord。　The　hangman　was　given　plenty　of　work　and　the

Habsburgs；　after　the　nature　of　that　strangely　cat…like　family；

once　more　landed　upon　their　feet　and　rapidly　strengthened

their　position　as　the　masters　of　eastern　and　western　Europe。

They　played　the　game　of　politics　very　adroitly　and　used　the

jealousies　of　the　other　German　states　to　prevent　the　elevation

of　the　Prussian　king　to　the　Imperial　dignity。　Their　long　train…

ing　in　the　art　of　suffering　defeat　had　taught　them　the　value　of

patience。　They　knew　how　to　wait。　They　bided　their　time

and　while　the　liberals；　utterly　untrained　in　practical　politics；

talked　and　talked　and　talked　and　got　intoxicated　by　their　own

fine　speeches；　the　Austrians　quietly　gathered　their　forces；　dismissed

the　Parliament　of　Frankfort　and　re…established　the　old

and　impossible　German　confederation　which　the　Congress　of

Vienna　had　wished　upon　an　unsuspecting　world。



But　among　the　men　who　had　attended　this　strange　Parliament

of　unpractical　enthusiasts；　there　was　a　Prussian　country

squire　by　the　name　of　Bismarck；　who　had　made　good　use　of　his

eyes　and　ears。　He　had　a　deep　contempt　for　oratory。　He　knew

（what　every　man　of　action　has　always　known）　that　nothing

is　ever　accomplished　by　talk。　In　his　own　way　he　was　a　sincere

patriot。　He　had　been　trained　in　the　old　school　of　diplomacy

and　he　could　outlie　his　opponents　just　as　he　could　outwalk

them　and　outdrink　them　and　outride　them。



Bismarck　felt　convinced　that　the　loose　confederation

of　little　states　must　be　changed　into　a　strong　united　country

if　it　would　hold　its　own　against　the　other　European　powers。

Brought　up　amidst　feudal　ideas　of　loyalty；　he　decided　that

the　house　of　Hohenzollern；　of　which　he　was　the　most　faithful

servant；　should　rule　the　new　state；　rather　than　the　incompetent

Habsburgs。　For　this　purpose　he　must　first　get　rid　of　the

Austrian　influence；　and　he　began　to　make　the　necessary

preparations　for　this　painful　operation。



Italy　in　the　meantime　had　solved　her　own　problem；　and　had

rid　herself　of　her　hated　Austrian　master。　The　unity　of　Italy

was　the　work　of　three　men；　Cavour；　Mazzini　and　Garibaldi。

Of　these　three；　Cavour；　the　civil…engineer　with　the　short…sighted

eyes　and　the　steel…rimmed　glasses；　played　the　part　of　the　careful

political　pilot。　Mazzini；　who　had　spent　most　of　his　days

in　different　European　garrets；　hiding　from　the　Austrian　police；

was　the　public　agitator；　while　Garibaldi；　with　his　band　of　red…

shirted　rough…riders；　appealed　to　the　popular　imagination。



Mazzini　and　Garibaldi　were　both　believers　in　the　Republican

form　of　government。　Cavour；　however；　was　a　monarch…

ist；　and　the　others　who　recognised　his　superior　ability　in　such

matters　of　practical　statecraft；　accepted　his　decision　and　sacrificed

their　own　ambitions　for　the　greater　good　of　their　beloved

Fatherland。



Cavour　felt　towards　the　House　of　Sardinia　as　Bismarck

did　towards　the　Hohenzollern　family。　With　infinite　care　and

great　shrewdness　he　set　to　work　to　jockey　the　Sardinian　King

into　a　position　from　which　His　Majesty　would　be　able　to　assume

the　leadership　of　the　entire　Italian　people。　The　unsettled

political　conditions　in　the　rest　of　Europe　greatly　helped　him　in

his　plans　and　no　country　contributed　more　to　the　independence

of　Italy　than　her　old　and　trusted　（and　often　distrusted）

neighbour；　France。



In　that　turbulent　country；　in　November　of　the　year　1852；

the　Republic　had　come　to　a　sudden　but　not　unexpected　end。

Napoleon　III　the　son　of　Louis　Bonaparte　the　former　King　of

Holland；　and　the　small　nephew　of　a　great　uncle；　had　re…

established　an　Empire　and　had　made　himself　Emperor　‘‘by　the

Grace　of　God　and　the　Will　of　the　People。''



This　young　man；　who　had　been　educated　in　Germany　and

who　mixed　his　French　with　harsh　Teutonic　gutturals　（just

as　the　first　Napoleon　had　always　spoken　the　language　of　his

adopted　country　with　a　strong　Italian　accent）　was　trying　very

hard　to　use　the　Napoleonic　tradition　for　his　own　benefit。　But

he　had　many　enemies　and　did　not　feel　very　certain　of　his　hold

upon　his　ready…made　throne。　He　had　gained　the　friendship

of　Queen　Victoria　but　this　had　not　been　a　difficult　task；　as　the

good　Queen　was　not　particularly　brilliant　and　was　very　susceptible

to　flattery。　As　for　the　other　European　sovereigns；

they　treated　the　French　Emperor　with　insulting　haughtiness

and　sat　up　nights　devising　new　ways　in　which　they　could　show

their　upstart　‘‘Good　Brother''　how　sincerely　they　despised　him。



Napoleon　was　obliged　to　find　a　way　in　which　he　could　break

this　opposition；　either　through　love　or　through　fear。　He　well

knew　the　fascination　which　the　word　‘‘glory''　still　held　for　his

subjects。　Since　he　was　forced　to　gamble　for　his　throne　he

decided　to　play　the　game　of　Empire　for　high　stakes。　He　used

an　attack　of　Russia　upon　Turkey　as　an　excuse　for　bringing

about　the　Crimean　war　in　which　England　and　France　combined

against　the　Tsar　on　behalf　of　the　Sultan。　It　was　a　very

costly　and　exceedingly　unprofitable　enterprise。　Neither

France　nor　England　nor　Russia　reaped　much　glory。



But　the　Crimean　war　did　one　good　thing。　It　gave　Sardinia

a　chance　to　volunteer　on　the　winning　side　and　when　peace　was

declared　it　gave　Cavour　the　opportunity　to　lay　claim　to　the

gratitude　of　both　England　and　France。



Having　made　use　of　the　international　situation　to　get　Sardinia

recognised　as　one　of　the　more　important　powers　of　Europe；

the　clever　Italian　then　provoked　a　war　between　Sardinia

and　Austria　in　June　of　the　year　1859。　He　assured　himself　of

the　support　of　Napoleon　in　exchange　for　the　provinces　of

Savoy　and　the　city　of　Nice；　which　was　really　an　Italian　town。

The　Franco…Italian　armies　defeated　the　Austrians　at　Magenta

and　Solferino；　and　the　former　Austrian　provinces　and　duchies

were　united　into　a　single　Italian　kingdom。　Florence　became

the　capital　of　this　new　Italy　until　the　year　1870　when　the

French　recalled　their　troops　from　Home　to　defend　France

against　the　Germans。　As　soon　as　they　were　gone；　the　Italian

troops　entered　the　eternal　city　and　the　House　of　Sardinia　took

up　its　residence　in　the　old　Palace　of　the　Quirinal　which　an

ancient　Pope　had　built　on　the　ruins　of　the　baths　of　the　Emperor

Constantine。



The　Pope；　however；　moved　across　the　river　Tiber　and　hid

behind　the　walls　of　the　Vatican；　which　had　been　the　home　of

many　of　his　predecessors　since　their　return　from　the　exile　of

Avignon　in　the　year　1377。　He　protested　loudly　against　this

high…handed　theft　of　his　domains　and　addressed　letters　of　appeal

to　those　faithful　Catholics　who　were　inclined　to　sympathise

with　him　in　his　loss。　Their　number；　however；　was　small；

and　it　has　been　steadily　decreasing。　For；　once　delivered　from

the　cares　of　state；　the　Pope　was　able　to　devote　all　his　time　to

questions　of　a　spiritual　nature。　Standing　high　above　the　petty

quarrels　of　the　European　politicians；　the　Papacy　assumed　a　new

dignity　which　proved　of　great　benefit　to　the　church　and　made

it　an　international　power　for　social　and　religious　progress

which　has　shown　a　much　more　intelligent　appreciation　of　modern

economic　problems　than　most　Protestant　sects。



In　this　way；　the　attempt　of　the　Congress　of　Vienna　to

settle　the　Italian　question　by　making　the　peninsula　an

Austrian　province　was　at　last　undone。



The　German　problem　however　remained　as　yet　unsolved。

It　proved　the　most　difficult　of　all。　The　failure　of　the　revolution

of　the　year　1848　had　led　to　the　wholesale　migration　of　the　more

energetic　and　liberal　elements　among　the　German　people。

These　young　fellows　had　moved　to　the　United　States　of　America；

to　Brazil；　to　the　new　colonies　in　Asia　and　America。　Their

work　was　continued　in　Germany　but　by　a　different　sort　of　men。



In　the　new　Diet　which　met　at　Frankfort；　after　the　collapse

of　the　German　Parliament　and　the　failure　of　the　Liberals　to

establish　a　united　country；　the　Kingdom　of　Prussia　was　represented

by　that　same　Otto　von　Bismarck　from　whom　we　parted

a　few　pages　ago。　Bismarck　by　now　had　managed　to　gain　the

complete　confidence　of　the　king　of　Prussia。　That　was　all　he

asked　for。　The　opinion　of　the　Prussian　parliament　or　of　the

Prussian　people　interested　him　not　at　all。　With　his　own　eyes

he　had　seen　the　defeat　of　the　Liberals。　He　knew　that　he

would　not　be　able　to　get　rid　of　Austria　without　a　war　and　he

began　by　strengthening　the　Prussian　army。　The　Landtag；　exasperated

at　his　high…handed　methods；　refused　to　give　him　the

necessary　credits。　Bismarck　did　not　even　bother　to　discuss

the　matter。　He　went　ahead　and　increased　his　army　with　the

help　of　funds　which　the　Prussian　house　of　Peers　and　the　king

placed　at　his　disposal。　Then　he　looked　for　a　national　cause

which　could　be　used　for　the　purpose　of　creating　a　great　wave

of　patriotism　among　all　the　German　people。



In　the　north　of　Germany　there　were　the　Duchies　of　Schleswig

and　Holstein　which　ever　since　the　middle　ages　had　been　a

source　of　trouble。　Both　countries　were　inhabited　by　a　certain

number　of　Danes　and　a　certain　number　of　Germans；　but　although

they　were　governed　by　the　King　of　Denmark；　they

were　not　an　integral　part　of　the　Danish　State　and　this　led　to

endless　difficulties。　Heaven　forbid　that　I　should　revive　this

forgotten　question　which　now　seems　settled　by　the　acts　of　the

recent　Congress　of　Versailles。　But　the　Germans　in　Holstein

were　very　loud　in　their　abuse　of　the　Danes　and　the　Dane