the story of mankind-第59章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！



the　most　complicated　of　engines；　and　a　number　of　practical

men　made　good　use　of　it。　The　Middle…Ages　had　used　wood　for

the　few　bits　of　necessary　machinery。　But　wood　wore　out

easily。　Iron　was　a　much　better　material　but　iron　was　scarce

except　in　England。　In　England　therefore　most　of　the　smelting

was　done。　To　smelt　iron；　huge　fires　were　needed。　In　the

beginning；　these　fires　had　been　made　of　wood；　but　gradually

the　forests　had　been　used　up。　Then　‘‘stone　coal''　（the　petrified

trees　of　prehistoric　times）　was　used。　But　coal　as　you

know　has　to　be　dug　out　of　the　ground　and　it　has　to　be　transported

to　the　smelting　ovens　and　the　mines　have　to　be　kept

dry　from　the　ever　invading　waters。



These　were　two　problems　which　had　to　be　solved　at　once。

For　the　time　being；　horses　could　still　be　used　to　haul　the　coal…

wagons；　but　the　pumping　question　demanded　the　application

of　special　machinery。　Several　inventors　were　busy　trying　to

solve　the　difficulty。　They　all　knew　that　steam　would　have　to

be　used　in　their　new　engine。　The　idea　of　the　steam　engine　was

very　old。　Hero　of　Alexandria；　who　lived　in　the　first　century

before　Christ；　has　described　to　us　several　bits　of　machinery

which　were　driven　by　steam。　The　people　of　the　Renaissance

had　played　with　the　notion　of　steam…driven　war　chariots。　The

Marquis　of　Worcester；　a　contemporary　of　Newton；　in　his　book

of　inventions；　tells　of　a　steam　engine。　A　little　later；　in　the　year

1698；　Thomas　Savery　of　London　applied　for　a　patent　for　a

pumping　engine。　At　the　same　time；　a　Hollander；　Christian

Huygens；　was　trying　to　perfect　an　engine　in　which　gun…powder

was　used　to　cause　regular　explosions　in　much　the　same　way　as

we　use　gasoline　in　our　motors。



All　over　Europe；　people　were　busy　with　the　idea。　Denis

Papin；　a　Frenchman；　friend　and　assistant　of　Huygens；　was

making　experiments　with　steam　engines　in　several　countries。

He　invented　a　little　wagon　that　was　driven　by　steam；　and　a

paddle…wheel　boat。　But　when　he　tried　to　take　a　trip　in　his

vessel；　it　was　confiscated　by　the　authorities　on　a　complaint　of

the　boatmen's　union；　who　feared　that　such　a　craft　would　deprive

them　of　their　livelihood。　Papin　finally　died　in　London　in

great　poverty；　having　wasted　all　his　money　on　his　inventions。

But　at　the　time　of　his　death；　another　mechanical　enthusiast；

Thomas　Newcomen；　was　working　on　the　problem　of　a　new

steam…pump。　Fifty　years　later　his　engine　was　improved　upon

by　James　Watt；　a　Glasgow　instrument　maker。　In　the　year

1777；　he　gave　the　world　the　first　steam　engine　that　proved　of

real　practical　value。



But　during　the　centuries　of　experiments　with　a　‘‘heat…engine；''

the　political　world　had　greatly　changed。　The　British

people　had　succeeded　the　Dutch　as　the　common…carriers　of　the

world's　trade。　They　had　opened　up　new　colonies。　They　took

the　raw　materials　which　the　colonies　produced　to　England；

and　there　they　turned　them　into　finished　products；　and　then

they　exported　the　finished　goods　to　the　four　corners　of　the

world。　During　the　seventeenth　century；　the　people　of　Georgia

and　the　Carolinas　had　begun　to　grow　a　new　shrub　which　gave

a　strange　sort　of　woolly　substance；　the　so…called　‘‘cotton　wool。''

After　this　had　been　plucked；　it　was　sent　to　England　and　there

the　people　of　Lancastershire　wove　it　into　cloth。　This　weaving

was　done　by　hand　and　in　the　homes　of　the　workmen。　Very　soon

a　number　of　improvements　were　made　in　the　process　of　weaving。

In　the　year　1730；　John　Kay　invented　the　‘‘fly　shuttle。''

In　1770；　James　Hargreaves　got　a　patent　on　his　‘‘spinning

jenny。''　Eli　Whitney；　an　American；　invented　the　cotton…gin；

which　separated　the　cotton　from　its　seeds；　a　job　which　had

previously　been　done　by　hand　at　the　rate　of　only　a　pound　a　day。

Finally　Richard　Arkwright　and　the　Reverend　Edmund　Cartwright

invented　large　weaving　machines；　which　were　driven　by

water　power。　And　then；　in　the　eighties　of　the　eighteenth

century；　just　when　the　Estates　General　of　France　had　begun

those　famous　meetings　which　were　to　revolutionise　the　political

system　of　Europe；　the　engines　of　Watt　were　arranged　in　such

a　way　that　they　could　drive　the　weaving　machines　of　Arkwright；

and　this　created　an　economic　and　social　revolution

which　has　changed　human　relationship　in　almost　every　part

of　the　world。



As　soon　as　the　stationary　engine　had　proved　a　success；　the

inventors　turned　their　attention　to　the　problem　of　propelling

boats　and　carts　with　the　help　of　a　mechanical　contrivance。

Watt　himself　designed　plans　for　a　‘‘steam　locomotive；''　but

ere　he　had　perfected　his　ideas；　in　the　year　1804；　a　locomotive

made　by　Richard　Trevithick　carried　a　load　of　twenty　tons　at

Pen…y…darran　in　the　Wales　mining　district。



At　the　same　time　an　American　jeweller　and　portrait…painter

by　the　name　of　Robert　Fulton　was　in　Paris；　trying　to　convince

Napoleon　that　with　the　use　of　his　submarine　boat；　the

‘‘Nautilus；''　and　his　‘‘steam…boat；''　the　French　might　be　able　to

destroy　the　naval　supremacy　of　England。



Fulton's　idea　of　a　steamboat　was　not　original。　He　had

undoubtedly　copied　it　from　John　Fitch；　a　mechanical　genius　of

Connecticut　whose　cleverly　constructed　steamer　had　first　navigated

the　Delaware　river　as　early　as　the　year　1787。　But　Napoleon

and　his　scientific　advisers　did　not　believe　in　the　practical

possibility　of　a　self…propelled　boat；　and　although　the　Scotch…

built　engine　of　the　little　craft　puffed　merrily　on　the　Seine；　the

great　Emperor　neglected　to　avail　himself　of　this　formidable

weapon　which　might　have　given　him　his　revenge　for　Trafalgar。



As　for　Fulton；　he　returned　to　the　United　States　and；　being

a　practical　man　of　business；　he　organised　a　successful　steamboat

company　together　with　Robert　R。　Livingston；　a　signer　of

the　Declaration　of　Independence；　who　was　American　Minister

to　France　when　Fulton　was　in　Paris；　trying　to　sell　his　invention。

The　first　steamer　of　this　new　company；　the　‘‘Clermont；''

which　was　given　a　monopoly　of　all　the　waters　of　New　York

State；　equipped　with　an　engine　built　by　Boulton　and　Watt　of

Birmingham　in　England；　began　a　regular　service　between　New

York　and　Albany　in　the　year　1807。



As　for　poor　John　Fitch；　the　man　who　long　before　any　one

else　had　used　the　‘‘steam…boat''　for　commercial　purposes；　he

came　to　a　sad　death。　Broken　in　health　and　empty　of　purse；　he

had　come　to　the　end　of　his　resources　when　his　fifth　boat；　which

was　propelled　by　means　of　a　screw…propeller；　had　been　destroyed。

His　neighbours　jeered　at　him　as　they　were　to　laugh　a

hundred　years　later　when　Professor　Langley　constructed　his

funny　flying　machines。　Fitch　had　hoped　to　give　his　country

an　easy　access　to　the　broad　rivers　of　the　west　and　his　countrymen

preferred　to　travel　in　flat…boats　or　go　on　foot。　In　the　year

1798；　in　utter　despair　and　misery；　Fitch　killed　himself　by　taking

poison。



But　twenty　years　later；　the　‘‘Savannah；''　a　steamer　of　1850

tons　and　making　six　knots　an　hour；　（the　Mauretania　goes　just

four　times　as　fast；）　crossed　the　ocean　from　Savannah　to　Liverpool

in　the　record　time　of　twenty…five　days。　Then　there　was

an　end　to　the　derision　of　the　multitude　and　in　their　enthusiasm

the　people　gave　the　credit　for　the　invention　to　the　wrong　man。



Six　years　later；　George　Stephenson；　a　Scotchman；　who　had

been　building　locomotives　for　the　purpose　of　hauling　coal　from

the　mine…pit　to　smelting　ovens　and　cotton　factories；　built　his

famous　‘‘travelling　engine''　which　reduced　the　price　of　coal　by

almost　seventy　per　cent　and　which　made　it　possible　to　establish

the　first　regular　passenger　service　between　Manchester　and

Liverpool；　when　people　were　whisked　from　city　to　city　at　the

unheard…of　speed　of　fifteen　miles　per　hour。　A　dozen　years

later；　this　speed　had　been　increased　to　twenty　miles　per　hour。

At　the　present　time；　any　well…behaved　flivver　（the　direct　descendant

of　the　puny　little　motor…driven　machines　of　Daimler

and　Levassor　of　the　eighties　of　the　last　century）　can　do　better

than　these　early　‘‘Puffing　Billies。''



But　while　these　practically…minded　engineers　were　improving

upon　their　rattling　‘‘heat　engines；''　a　group　of　‘‘pure''

scientists　（men　who　devote　fourteen　hours　of　each　day　to　the

study　of　those　‘‘theoretical''　scientific　phenomena　without　which

no　mechanical　progress　would　be　possible）　were　following　a

new　scent　which　promised　to　lead　them　into　the　most　secret　and

hidden　domains　of　Nature。



Two　thousand　years　ago；　a　number　of　Greek　and　Roman

philosophers　（notably　Thales　of　Miletus　and　Pliny　who　was

killed　while　trying　to　study　the　eruption　of　Vesuvius　of　the

year　79　when　Pompeii　and　Herculaneum　were　buried　beneath

the　ashes）　had　noticed　the　strange　antics　of　bits　of　straw　and　of

feather　which　were　held　near　a　piece　of　amber　which　was　being

rubbed　with　a　bit　of　wool。　The　schoolmen　of　the　Middle　Ages

had　not　been　interested　in　this　mysterious　‘‘electric''　power。

But　immediately　after　the　Renaissance；　William　Gilbert；　the

private　physician　of　Queen　Elizabeth；　wrote　his　famous　treatise

on　the　character　and　behaviour　of　Magnets。　During　the

Thirty　Years　War　Otto　von　Guericke；　the　burgomaster　of

Magdeburg　and　the　inventor　of　the　air…pump；　constructed　the

first　electrical　machine。　During　the　next　century　a　large　number

of　scientists　devoted　themselves　to　the　study　of　electricity。

Not　less　than　three　professors　invented　the　famous　Leyden

Jar　in　the　year　1795。　At　the　same　time；　Benjamin　Franklin；

the　most　universal　genius　of　America　next　to　Benjamin　Thomson

（who　after　his　flight　from　New　Hampshire　on　account　of

his　pro…British　sympathies　became　known　as　Count　Rumford）

was　devoting　his　attention　to　this　subject。　He　discovered　that

lightning　and　the　electric　spark　were　manifestations　of　the　same

electric　power　and　continued　his　electric　studies　until　the　end　of

his　busy　and　useful　life。　Then　came　Volta　with　his　famous

‘‘electric　pile''　and　Galvani　and　Day　and　the　Danish　professor

Hans　Christian　Oersted　and　Ampere　and　Arago　and　Faraday；

all　of　them　diligent　searchers　after　the　true　nature　of　the　electric

forces。



They　freely　gave　their　discoveries　to　the　world　and　Samuel

Morse　（who　like　Fulton　began　his　career　as　an　artist）　thought

that　he　could　use　this　new　electric　current　to　transmit　messages

from　one　city　to　another。　He　intended　to　use　copper

wire　and　a　little　machine　which　he　had　invented。　People

laughed　at　him。　Morse　therefore　was　obliged　to　finance　his

own　experiments　and　soon　he　had　spent　all　his　money　and

then　he　was　very　poor　and　people　laughed　even　louder。　He

then　asked　Congress　to　help　him　and　a　special　Committee　on

Commerce　promised　him　their　support。　But　the　members　of

Congress　were　not　at　all　interested　and　Morse　had　to　wait

twelve　years　before　he　was　given　a　small　congressional　appropriation。

He　then　built　a　‘‘telegraph''　between　Baltimore　and

Washington。　In　the　year　1887　he　had　shown　his　first　successful

‘‘telegraph''　in　one　of　the　lecture　halls　of　New　Y