the story of mankind-第60章

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‘‘telegraph''　in　one　of　the　lecture　halls　of　New　York

University。　Finally；　on　the　24th　of　May　of　the　year　1844　the

first　long…distance　message　was　sent　from　Washington　to

Baltimore　and　to…day　the　whole　world　is　covered　with　telegraph

wires　and　we　can　send　news　from　Europe　to　Asia　in　a　few

seconds。　Twenty…three　years　later　Alexander　Graham　Bell　used

the　electric　current　for　his　telephone。　And　half　a　century

afterwards　Marconi　improved　upon　these　ideas　by　inventing　a

system　of　sending　messages　which　did　away　entirely　with　the　old…

fashioned　wires。



While　Morse；　the　New　Englander；　was　working　on　his

‘‘telegraph；''　Michael　Faraday；　the　Yorkshire…man；　had　constructed

the　first　‘‘dynamo。''　This　tiny　little　machine　was　completed

in　the　year　1881　when　Europe　was　still　trembling　as　a

result　of　the　great　July　revolutions　which　had　so　severely　upset

the　plans　of　the　Congress　of　Vienna。　The　first　dynamo　grew

and　grew　and　grew　and　to…day　it　provides　us　with　heat　and

with　light　（you　know　the　little　incandescent　bulbs　which　Edison；

building　upon　French　and　English　experiments　of　the　forties

and　fifties；　first　made　in　1878）　and　with　power　for　all　sorts

of　machines。　If　I　am　not　mistaken　the　electric…engine　will

soon　entirely　drive　out　the　‘‘heat　engine''　just　as　in　the　olden

days　the　more　highly…organised　prehistoric　animals　drove　out

their　less　efficient　neighbours。



Personally　（but　I　know　nothing　about　machinery）　this　will

make　me　very　happy。　For　the　electric　engine　which　can　be　run

by　waterpower　is　a　clean　and　companionable　servant　of　mankind

but　the　‘‘heat…engine；''　the　marvel　of　the　eighteenth　century；

is　a　noisy　and　dirty　creature　for　ever　filling　the　world　with

ridiculous　smoke…stacks　and　with　dust　and　soot　and　asking

that　it　be　fed　with　coal　which　has　to　be　dug　out　of　mines　at

great　inconvenience　and　risk　to　thousands　of　people。



And　if　I　were　a　novelist　and　not　a　historian；　who　must　stick

to　facts　and　may　not　use　his　imagination；　I　would　describe　the

happy　day　when　the　last　steam　locomotive　shall　be　taken　to　the

Museum　of　Natural　History　to　be　placed　next　to　the　skeleton

of　the　Dynosaur　and　the　Pteredactyl　and　the　other　extinct

creatures　of　a　by…gone　age。







THE　SOCIAL　REVOLUTION



BUT　THE　NEW　ENGINES　WERE　VERY

EXPENSIVE　AND　ONLY　PEOPLE　OF　WEALTH

COULD　AFFORD　THEM。　THE　OLD　CARPENTER

OR　SHOEMAKER　WHO　HAD　BEEN　HIS

OWN　MASTER　IN　HIS　LITTLE　WORKSHOP

WAS　OBLIGED　TO　HIRE　HIMSELF　OUT　TO

THE　OWNERS　OF　THE　BIG　MECHANICAL

TOOLS；　AND　WHILE　HE　MADE　MORE

MONEY　THAN　BEFORE；　HE　LOST　HIS

FORMER　INDEPENDENCE　AND　HE　DID　NOT

LIKE　THAT





IN　the　olden　days　the　work　of　the　world　had　been　done　by

independent　workmen　who　sat　in　their　own　little　workshops　in

the　front　of　their　houses；　who　owned　their　tools；　who　boxed　the

ears　of　their　own　apprentices　and　who；　within　the　limits　prescribed

by　their　guilds；　conducted　their　business　as　it　pleased

them。　They　lived　simple　lives；　and　were　obliged　to　work　very

long　hours；　but　they　were　their　own　masters。　If　they　got　up

and　saw　that　it　was　a　fine　day　to　go　fishing；　they　went　fishing

and　there　was　no　one　to　say　‘‘no。''



But　the　introduction　of　machinery　changed　this。　A　machine

is　really　nothing　but　a　greatly　enlarged　tool。　A　railroad

train　which　carries　you　at　the　speed　of　a　mile　a　minute　is

in　reality　a　pair　of　very　fast　legs；　and　a　steam　hammer　which

flattens　heavy　plates　of　iron　is　just　a　terrible　big　fist；　made　of

steel。



But　whereas　we　can　all　afford　a　pair　of　good　legs　and　a

good　strong　fist；　a　railroad　train　and　a　steam　hammer　and　a

cotton　factory　are　very　expensive　pieces　of　machinery　and　they

are　not　owned　by　a　single　man；　but　usually　by　a　company　of

people　who　all　contribute　a　certain　sum　and　then　divide　the

profits　of　their　railroad　or　cotton　mill　according　to　the　amount

of　money　which　they　have　invested。



Therefore；　when　machines　had　been　improved　until　they

were　really　practicable　and　profitable；　the　builders　of　those

large　tools；　the　machine　manufacturers；　began　to　look　for　customers

who　could　afford　to　pay　for　them　in　cash。



During　the　early　middle　ages；　when　land　had　been　almost

the　only　form　of　wealth；　the　nobility　were　the　only　people

who　were　considered　wealthy。　But　as　I　have　told　you　in　a

previous　chapter；　the　gold　and　silver　which　they　possessed

was　quite　insignificant　and　they　used　the　old　system　of　barter；

exchanging　cows　for　horses　and　eggs　for　honey。　During

the　crusades；　the　burghers　of　the　cities　had　been　able　to　gather

riches　from　the　reviving　trade　between　the　east　and　the　west；

and　they　had　been　serious　rivals　of　the　lords　and　the　knights。



The　French　revolution　had　entirely　destroyed　the　wealth

of　the　nobility　and　had　enormously　increased　that　of　the　middle

class　or　‘‘bourgeoisie。''　The　years　of　unrest　which　followed　the

Great　Revolution　had　offered　many　middle…class　people　a

chance　to　get　more　than　their　share　of　this　world's　goods。　The

estates　of　the　church　had　been　confiscated　by　the　French　Convention

and　had　been　sold　at　auction。　There　had　been　a　terrific

amount　of　graft。　Land　speculators　had　stolen　thousands

of　square　miles　of　valuable　land；　and　during　the　Napoleonic

wars；　they　had　used　their　capital　to　‘‘profiteer''　in　grain　and

gun…powder；　and　now　they　possessed　more　wealth　than　they

needed　for　the　actual　expenses　of　their　households；　and　they

could　afford　to　build　themselves　factories　and　to　hire　men　and

women　to　work　the　machines。



This　caused　a　very　abrupt　change　in　the　lives　of　hundreds

of　thousands　of　people。　Within　a　few　years；　many　cities

doubled　the　number　of　their　inhabitants　and　the　old　civic　centre

which　had　been　the　real　‘‘home''　of　the　citizens　was　surrounded

with　ugly　and　cheaply　built　suburbs　where　the　workmen　slept

after　their　eleven　or　twelve　hours；　or　thirteen　hours；　spent　in　the

factories　and　from　where　they　returned　to　the　factory　as　soon

as　the　whistle　blew。



Far　and　wide　through　the　countryside　there　was　talk　of　the

fabulous　sums　of　money　that　could　be　made　in　the　towns。　The

peasant　boy；　accustomed　to　a　life　in　the　open；　went　to　the　city。

He　rapidly　lost　his　old　health　amidst　the　smoke　and　dust　and

dirt　of　those　early　and　badly　ventilated　workshops；　and　the

end；　very　often；　was　death　in　the　poor…house　or　in　the　hospital。



Of　course　the　change　from　the　farm　to　the　factory　on　the

part　of　so　many　people　was　not　accomplished　without　a　certain

amount　of　opposition。　Since　one　engine　could　do　as　much

work　as　a　hundred　men；　the　ninety…nine　others　who　were

thrown　out　of　employment　did　not　like　it。　Frequently　they　attacked

the　factory…buildings　and　set　fire　to　the　machines；　but

Insurance　Companies　had　been　organised　as　early　as　the　17th

century　and　as　a　rule　the　owners　were　well　protected　against　loss。



Soon；　newer　and　better　machines　were　installed；　the　factory

was　surrounded　with　a　high　wall　and　then　there　was　an

end　to　the　rioting。　The　ancient　guilds　could　not　possibly　survive

in　this　new　world　of　steam　and　iron。　They　went　out　of

existence　and　then　the　workmen　tried　to　organise　regular　labour

unions。　But　the　factory…owners；　who　through　their　wealth

could　exercise　great　influence　upon　the　politicians　of　the　different

countries；　went　to　the　Legislature　and　had　laws　passed

which　forbade　the　forming　of　such　trade　unions　because　they

interfered　with　the　‘‘liberty　of　action''　of　the　working　man。



Please　do　not　think　that　the　good　members　of　Parliament

who　passed　these　laws　were　wicked　tyrants。　They　were

the　true　sons　of　the　revolutionary　period　when　everybody

talked　of　‘‘liberty''　and　when　people　often　killed　their　neighbours

because　they　were　not　quite　as　liberty…loving　as　they

ought　to　have　been。　Since　‘‘liberty''　was　the　foremost　virtue

of　man；　it　was　not　right　that　labour…unions　should　dictate　to

their　members　the　hours　during　which　they　could　work　and

the　wages　which　they　must　demand。　The　workman　must　at

all　times；　be　‘‘free　to　sell　his　services　in　the　open　market；''　and

the　employer　must　be　equally　‘‘free''　to　conduct　his　business

as　he　saw　fit。　The　days　of　the　Mercantile　System；　when

the　state　had　regulated　the　industrial　life　of　the　entire

community；　were　coming　to　an　end。　The　new　idea　of　‘‘freedom''

insisted　that　the　state　stand　entirely　aside　and　let　commerce

take　its　course。



The　last　half　of　the　18th　century　had　not　merely　been　a

time　of　intellectual　and　political　doubt；　but　the　old　economic

ideas；　too；　had　been　replaced　by　new　ones　which　better　suited　the

need　of　the　hour。　Several　years　before　the　French　revolution；

Turgot；　who　had　been　one　of　the　unsuccessful　ministers　of

finance　of　Louis　XVI；　had　preached　the　novel　doctrine　of

‘‘economic　liberty。''　Turgot　lived　in　a　country　which　had

suffered　from　too　much　red…tape；　too　many　regulations；　too

many　officials　trying　to　enforce　too　many　laws。　‘‘Remove　this

official　supervision；''　he　wrote；　‘‘let　the　people　do　as　they　please；

and　everything　will　be　all　right。''　Soon　his　famous　advice　of

‘‘laissez　faire''　became　the　battle…cry　around　which　the　economists

of　that　period　rallied；



At　the　same　time　in　England；　Adam　Smith　was　working

on　his　mighty　volumes　on　the　‘‘Wealth　of　Nations；''　which　made

another　plea　for　‘‘liberty''　and　the　‘‘natural　rights　of　trade。''

Thirty　years　later；　after　the　fall　of　Napoleon；　when　the　reactionary

powers　of　Europe　had　gained　their　victory　at　Vienna；

that　same　freedom　which　was　denied　to　the　people　in　their

political　relations　was　forced　upon　them　in　their　industrial

life。



The　general　use　of　machinery；　as　I　have　said　at　the　beginning

of　this　chapter；　proved　to　be　of　great　advantage　to　the

state。　Wealth　increased　rapidly。　The　machine　made　it　possible

for　a　single　country；　like　England；　to　carry　all　the　burdens

of　the　great　Napoleonic　wars。　The　capitalists　（the　people

who　provided　the　money　with　which　machines　were　bought）

reaped　enormous　profits。　They　became　ambitious　and　began

to　take　an　interest　in　politics。　They　tried　to　compete　with　the

landed　aristocracy　which　still　exercised　great　influence　upon

the　government　of　most　European　countries。



In　England；　where　the　members　of　Parliament　were　still

elected　according　to　a　Royal　Decree　of　the　year　1265；　and

where　a　large　number　of　recently　created　industrial　centres　were

without　representation；　they　brought　about　the　passing　of　the

Reform　Bill　of　the　year　1882；　which　changed　the　electoral

system　and　gave　the　class　of　the　factory…owners　more　influence

upon　the　legislative　body。　This　however　caused　great

discontent　among　the　millions　of　factory　workers；　who　were

left　without　any　voice　in　the　government。　They　too　began

an　agitation　for　the　right　to　vote。　They　put　their　demands

down　in　a　document　which　came　to　be　known　as　the　‘‘People's

Charter。''　The　debates　about　this　charter　grew　more　and

more　violent。　They　had　not　yet　come　to　an　end