the story of mankind-第61章

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Charter。''　The　debates　about　this　charter　grew　more　and

more　violent。　They　had　not　yet　come　to　an　end　when　the　revolutions

of　the　year　1848　broke　out。　Frightened　by　the　threat

of　a　new　outbreak　or　Jacobinism　and　violence；　the　English

government　placed　the　Duke　of　Wellington；　who　was　now　in

his　eightieth　year；　at　the　head　of　the　army；　and　called　for

Volunteers。　London　was　placed　in　a　state　of　siege　and

preparations　were　made　to　suppress　the　coming　revolution。



But　the　Chartist　movement　killed　itself　through　bad　leadership

and　no　acts　of　violence　took　place。　The　new　class　of

wealthy　factory　owners；　（I　dislike　the　word　‘‘bourgeoisie''

which　has　been　used　to　death　by　the　apostles　of　a　new　social

order；）　slowly　increased　its　hold　upon　the　government；　and

the　conditions　of　industrial　life　in　the　large　cities　continued　to

transform　vast　acres　of　pasture　and　wheat…land　into　dreary

slums；　which　guard　the　approach　of　every　modern　European

town。







EMANCIPATION



THE　GENERAL　INTRODUCTION　OF　MACHINERY

DID　NOT　BRING　ABOUT　THE　ERA　OF

HAPPINESS　AND　PROSPERITY　WHICH

HAD　BEEN　PREDICTED　BY　THE　GENERATION

WHICH　SAW　THE　STAGE　COACH　REPLACED

BY　THE　RAILROAD。　SEVERAL

REMEDIES　WERE　SUGGESTED　BUT　NONE

OF　THESE　QUITE　SOLVED　THE　PROBLEM





IN　the　year　1831；　just　before　the　passing　of　the　first　Reform

Bill　Jeremy　Bentham；　the　great　English　student　of　legislative

methods　and　the　most　practical　political　reformer　of　that

day；　wrote　to　a　friend：　‘‘The　way　to　be　comfortable　is　to

make　others　comfortable。　The　way　to　make　others　comfortable

is　to　appear　to　love　them。　The　way　to　appear　to　love　them

is　to　love　them　in　reality。''　Jeremy　was　an　honest　man。　He

said　what　he　believed　to　be　true。　His　opinions　were　shared　by

thousands　of　his　countrymen。　They　felt　responsible　for　the

happiness　of　their　less　fortunate　neighbours　and　they　tried

their　very　best　to　help　them。　And　Heaven　knows　it　was　time

that　something　be　done！



The　ideal　of　‘‘economic　freedom''　（the　‘‘laissez　faire''　of

Turgot）　had　been　necessary　in　the　old　society　where　mediaeval

restrictions　lamed　all　industrial　effort。　But　this　‘‘liberty　of

action''　which　had　been　the　highest　law　of　the　land　had　led　to

a　terrible；　yea；　a　frightful　condition。　The　hours　in　the　fac…

tory　were　limited　only　by　the　physical　strength　of　the　workers。

As　long　as　a　woman　could　sit　before　her　loom；　without

fainting　from　fatigue；　she　was　supposed　to　work。　Children　of

five　and　six　were　taken　to　the　cotton　mills；　to　save　them　from

the　dangers　of　the　street　and　a　life　of　idleness。　A　law　had

been　passed　which　forced　the　children　of　paupers　to　go　to　work

or　be　punished　by　being　chained　to　their　machines。　In　return

for　their　services　they　got　enough　bad　food　to　keep　them　alive

and　a　sort　of　pigsty　in　which　they　could　rest　at　night。　Often

they　were　so　tired　that　they　fell　asleep　at　their　job。　To　keep

them　awake　a　foreman　with　a　whip　made　the　rounds　and　beat

them　on　the　knuckles　when　it　was　necessary　to　bring　them　back

to　their　duties。　Of　course；　under　these　circumstances　thousands

of　little　children　died。　This　was　regrettable　and　the　employers；

who　after　all　were　human　beings　and　not　without　a　heart；　sincerely

wished　that　they　could　abolish　‘‘child　labour。''　But　since

man　was　‘‘free''　it　followed　that　children　were　‘‘free''　too。

Besides；　if　Mr。　Jones　had　tried　to　work　his　factory　without　the

use　of　children　of　five　and　six；　his　rival；　Mr。　Stone；　would　have

hired　an　extra　supply　of　little　boys　and　Jones　would　have　been

forced　into　bankruptcy。　It　was　therefore　impossible　for　Jones

to　do　without　child　labour　until　such　time　as　an　act　of　Parliament

should　forbid　it　for　all　employers。



But　as　Parliament　was　no　longer　dominated　by　the　old

landed　aristocracy　（which　had　despised　the　upstart　factory…

owners　with　their　money　bags　and　had　treated　them　with　open

contempt）；　but　was　under　control　of　the　representatives　from

the　industrial　centres；　and　as　long　as　the　law　did　not　allow

workmen　to　combine　in　labour…unions；　very　little　was　accomplished。

Of　course　the　intelligent　and　decent　people　of　that

time　were　not　blind　to　these　terrible　conditions。　They　were

just　helpless。　Machinery　had　conquered　the　world　by　surprise

and　it　took　a　great　many　years　and　the　efforts　of　thousands

of　noble　men　and　women　to　make　the　machine　what　it

ought　to　be；　man's　servant；　and　not　his　master。



Curiously　enough；　the　first　attack　upon　the　outrageous

system　of　employment　which　was　then　common　in　all　parts　of

the　world；　was　made　on　behalf　of　the　black　slaves　of　Africa

and　America。　Slavery　had　been　introduced　into　the　American

continent　by　the　Spaniards。　They　had　tried　to　use　the

Indians　as　labourers　in　the　fields　and　in　the　mines；　but　the

Indians；　when　taken　away　from　a　life　in　the　open；　had　lain　down

and　died　and　to　save　them　from　extinction　a　kind…hearted　priest

had　suggested　that　negroes　be　brought　from　Africa　to　do　the

work。　The　negroes　were　strong　and　could　stand　rough　treatment。

Besides；　association　with　the　white　man　would　give

them　a　chance　to　learn　Christianity　and　in　this　way；　they　would

be　able　to　save　their　souls；　and　so　from　every　possible　point　of

view；　it　would　be　an　excellent　arrangement　both　for　the　kindly

white　man　and　for　his　ignorant　black　brother。　But　with　the

introduction　of　machinery　there　had　been　a　greater　demand　for

cotton　and　the　negroes　were　forced　to　work　harder　than　ever

before；　and　they　too；　like　the　Indians；　began　to　die　under　the

treatment　which　they　received　at　the　hands　of　the　overseers。



Stories　of　incredible　cruelty　constantly　found　their　way　to

Europe　and　in　all　countries　men　and　women　began　to　agitate

for　the　abolition　of　slavery。　In　England；　William　Wilberforce

and　Zachary　Macaulay；　（the　father　of　the　great　historian　whose

history　of　England　you　must　read　if　you　want　to　know　how

wonderfully　interesting　a　history…book　can　be；）　organised　a

society　for　the　suppression　of　slavery。　First　of　all　they　got　a

law　passed　which　made　‘‘slave　trading''　illegal。　And　after　the

year　1840　there　was　not　a　single　slave　in　any　of　the　British

colonies。　The　revolution　of　1848　put　an　end　to　slavery　in　the

French　possessions。　The　Portuguese　passed　a　law　in　the　year

1858　which　promised　all　slaves　their　liberty　in　twenty　years

from　date。　The　Dutch　abolished　slavery　in　1863　and　in　the

same　year　Tsar　Alexander　II　returned　to　his　serfs　that　liberty

which　had　been　taken　away　from　them　more　than　two　centuries

before。



In　the　United　States　of　America　the　question　led　to　grave

difficulties　and　a　prolonged　war。　Although　the　Declaration

of　Independence　had　laid　down　the　principle　that　‘‘all　men

were　created　free　and　equal；''　an　exception　had　been　made　for

those　men　and　women　whose　skins　were　dark　and　who　worked

on　the　plantations　of　the　southern　states。　As　time　went　on；　the

dislike　of　the　people　of　the　North　for　the　institution　of　slavery

increased　and　they　made　no　secret　of　their　feelings。　The　southerners

however　claimed　that　they　could　not　grow　their　cotton

without　slave…labour；　and　for　almost　fifty　years　a　mighty　debate

raged　in　both　the　Congress　and　the　Senate。



The　North　remained　obdurate　and　the　South　would　not　give

in。　When　it　appeared　impossible　to　reach　a　compromise；　the

southern　states　threatened　to　leave　the　Union。　It　was　a　most

dangerous　point　in　the　history　of　the　Union。　Many　things

‘‘might''　have　happened。　That　they　did　not　happen　was　the

work　of　a　very　great　and　very　good　man。



On　the　sixth　of　November　of　the　year　1860；　Abraham　Lincoln；

an　Illinois　lawyer；　and　a　man　who　had　made　his　own　intellectual

fortune；　had　been　elected　president　by　the　Republicans

who　were　very　strong　in　the　anti…slavery　states。　He

knew　the　evils　of　human　bondage　at　first　hand　and　his　shrewd

common…sense　told　him　that　there　was　no　room　on　the　northern

continent　for　two　rival　nations。　When　a　number　of　southern

states　seceded　and　formed　the　‘‘Confederate　States　of　America；''

Lincoln　accepted　the　challenge。　The　Northern　states

were　called　upon　for　volunteers。　Hundreds　of　thousands　of

young　men　responded　with　eager　enthusiasm　and　there　followed

four　years　of　bitter　civil　war。　The　South；　better　prepared

and　following　the　brilliant　leadership　of　Lee　and　Jackson；

repeatedly　defeated　the　armies　of　the　North。　Then　the

economic　strength　of　New　England　and　the　West　began　to

tell。　An　unknown　officer　by　the　name　of　Grant　arose　from　obscurity

and　became　the　Charles　Martel　of　the　great　slave　war。

Without　interruption　he　hammered　his　mighty　blows　upon　the

crumbling　defences　of　the　South。　Early　in　the　year　1863；

President　Lincoln　issued　his　‘‘Emancipation　Proclamation''

which　set　all　slaves　free。　In　April　of　the　year　1865　Lee

surrendered　the　last　of　his　brave　armies　at　Appomattox。　A　few

days　later；　President　Lincoln　was　murdered　by　a　lunatic。　But

his　work　was　done。　With　the　exception　of　Cuba　which　was

still　under　Spanish　domination；　slavery　had　come　to　an　end　in

every　part　of　the　civilised　world。



But　while　the　black　man　was　enjoying　an　increasing　amount

of　liberty；　the　‘‘free''　workmen　of　Europe　did　not　fare　quite　so

well。　Indeed；　it　is　a　matter　of　surprise　to　many　contemporary

writers　and　observers　that　the　masses　of　workmen　（the　so…

called　proletariat）　did　not　die　out　from　sheer　misery。　They

lived　in　dirty　houses　situated　in　miserable　parts　of　the　slums。

They　ate　bad　food。　They　received　just　enough　schooling　to

fit　them　for　their　tasks。　In　case　of　death　or　an　accident；　their

families　were　not　provided　for。　But　the　brewery　and　distillery

interests；　（who　could　exercise　great　influence　upon　the　Legislature；）

encouraged　them　to　forget　their　woes　by　offering　them

unlimited　quantities　of　whisky　and　gin　at　very　cheap　rates。



The　enormous　improvement　which　has　taken　place　since　the

thirties　and　the　forties　of　the　last　century　is　not　due　to　the　efforts

of　a　single　man。　The　best　brains　of　two　generations　devoted

themselves　to　the　task　of　saving　the　world　from　the　disastrous

results　of　the　all…too…sudden　introduction　of　machinery。

They　did　not　try　to　destroy　the　capitalistic　system。　This　would

have　been　very　foolish；　for　the　accumulated　wealth　of　other

people；　when　intelligently　used；　may　be　of　very　great　benefit

to　all　mankind。　But　they　tried　to　combat　the　notion　that　true

equality　can　exist　between　the　man　who　has　wealth　and　owns

the　factories　and　can　close　their　doors　at　will　without　the　risk

of　going　hungry；　and　the　labourer　who　must　take　whatever　job

is　offered；　at　whatever　wage　he　can　get；　or　face　the　risk　of

starvation　for　himself；　his　wife　and　his　children。



They　endeavoured　to　introduce　a　number　of　laws　which　regulated

the　relations　between　the　factory　owners　and　the　factory

workers。　In　this；　the　reformers　have　been　increasingly

successful　in　all　countries。　To…day；　the　majority　of　the　labourers

are　well　protected；　thei