the story of mankind-第62章

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successful　in　all　countries。　To…day；　the　majority　of　the　labourers

are　well　protected；　their　hours　are　being　reduced　to　the

excellent　average　of　eight；　and　their　children　are　sent　to　the

schools　instead　of　to　the　mine　pit　and　to　the　carding…room　of

the　cotton　mills。



But　there　were　other　men　who　also　contemplated　the　sight

of　all　the　belching　smoke…stacks；　who　heard　the　rattle　of　the

railroad　trains；　who　saw　the　store…houses　filled　with　a　surplus

of　all　sorts　of　materials；　and　who　wondered　to　what　ultimate

goal　this　tremendous　activity　would　lead　in　the　years　to　come。

They　remembered　that　the　human　race　had　lived　for　hundreds

of　thousands　of　years　without　commercial　and　industrial　competition。

Could　they　change　the　existing　order　of　things　and

do　away　with　a　system　of　rivalry　which　so　often　sacrificed　human

happiness　to　profits？



This　ideathis　vague　hope　for　a　better　daywas　not　restricted

to　a　single　country。　In　England；　Robert　Owen；　the

owner　of　many　cotton　mills；　established　a　so…called　‘‘socialistic

community''　which　was　a　success。　But　when　he　died；　the　prosperity

of　New　Lanark　came　to　an　end　and　an　attempt　of　Louis

Blanc；　a　French　journalist；　to　establish　‘‘social　workshops''

all　over　France　fared　no　better。　Indeed；　the　increasing　number

of　socialistic　writers　soon　began　to　see　that　little　individual

communities　which　remained　outside　of　the　regular　industrial

life；　would　never　be　able　to　accomplish　anything　at　all。　It

was　necessary　to　study　the　fundamental　principles　underlying

the　whole　industrial　and　capitalistic　society　before　useful　remedies

could　be　suggested。



The　practical　socialists　like　Robert　Owen　and　Louis

Blanc　and　Francois　Fournier　were　succeeded　by　theoretical

students　of　socialism　like　Karl　Marx　and　Friedrich　Engels。　Of

these　two；　Marx　is　the　best　known。　He　was　a　very　brilliant

Jew　whose　family　had　for　a　long　time　lived　in　Germany。　He

had　heard　of　the　experiments　of　Owen　and　Blanc　and　he　began

to　interest　himself　in　questions　of　labour　and　wages　and

unemployment。　But　his　liberal　views　made　him　very　unpopular

with　the　police　authorities　of　Germany；　and　he　was　forced　to

flee　to　Brussels　and　then　to　London；　where　he　lived　a　poor　and

shabby　life　as　the　correspondent　of　the　New　York　Tribune。



No　one；　thus　far；　had　paid　much　attention　to　his　books　on

economic　subjects。　But　in　the　year　1864　he　organised　the　first

international　association　of　working　men　and　three　years　later

in　1867；　he　published　the　first　volume　of　his　well…known　trea…

tise　called　‘‘Capital。''　Marx　believed　that　all　history　was　a

long　struggle　between　those　who　‘‘have''　and　those　who　‘‘don't

have。''　The　introduction　and　general　use　of　machinery　had

created　a　new　class　in　society；　that　of　the　capitalists　who　used

their　surplus　wealth　to　buy　the　tools　which　were　then　used　by

the　labourers　to　produce　still　more　wealth；　which　was　again　used

to　build　more　factories　and　so　on；　until　the　end　of　time。　Meanwhile；

according　to　Marx；　the　third　estate　（the　bourgeoisie）

was　growing　richer　and　richer　and　the　fourth　estate　（the　proletariat）

was　growing　poorer　and　poorer；　and　he　predicted　that

in　the　end；　one　man　would　possess　all　the　wealth　of　the　world

while　the　others　would　be　his　employees　and　dependent　upon

his　good　will。



To　prevent　such　a　state　of　affairs；　Marx　advised　working

men　of　all　countries　to　unite　and　to　fight　for　a　number　of　political

and　economic　measures　which　he　had　enumerated　in　a　Manifesto

in　the　year　1848；　the　year　of　the　last　great　European

revolution。



These　views　of　course　were　very　unpopular　with　the　governments

of　Europe；　many　countries；　especially　Prussia；　passed

severe　laws　against　the　Socialists　and　policemen　were　ordered

to　break　up　the　Socialist　meetings　and　to　arrest　the　speakers。

But　that　sort　of　persecution　never　does　any　good。　Martyrs

are　the　best　possible　advertisements　for　an　unpopular　cause。

In　Europe　the　number　of　socialists　steadily　increased　and　it

was　soon　clear　that　the　Socialists　did　not　contemplate　a　violent

revolution　but　were　using　their　increasing　power　in　the　different

Parliaments　to　promote　the　interests　of　the　labouring

classes。　Socialists　were　even　called　upon　to　act　as　Cabinet

Ministers；　and　they　co…operated　with　progressive　Catholics　and

Protestants　to　undo　the　damage　that　had　been　caused　by　the

Industrial　Revolution　and　to　bring　about　a　fairer　division　of

the　many　benefits　which　had　followed　the　introduction　of　machinery

and　the　increased　production　of　wealth。







THE　AGE　OF　SCIENCE



BUT　THE　WORLD　HAD　UNDERGONE　ANOTHER

CHANGE　WHICH　WAS　OF　GREATER

IMPORTANCE　THAN　EITHER　THE　POLITICAL

OR　THE　INDUSTRIAL　REVOLUTIONS。

AFTER　GENERATIONS　OF　OPPRESSION

AND　PERSECUTION；　THE　SCIENTIST　HAD

AT　LAST　GAINED　LIBERTY　OF　ACTION

AND　HE　WAS　NOW　TRYING　TO　DISCOVER

THE　FUNDAMENTAL　LAWS　WHICH　GOVERN

THE　UNIVERSE





THE　Egyptians；　the　Babylonians；　the　Chaldeans；　the　Greeks

and　the　Romans；　had　all　contributed　something　to　the　first

vague　notions　of　science　and　scientific　investigation。　But　the

great　migrations　of　the　fourth　century　had　destroyed　the　classical

world　of　the　Mediterranean；　and　the　Christian　Church；　which

was　more　interested　in　the　life　of　the　soul　than　in　the　life　of　the

body；　had　regarded　science　as　a　manifestation　of　that　human　arrogance

which　wanted　to　pry　into　divine　affairs　which　belonged

to　the　realm　of　Almighty　God；　and　which　therefore　was　closely

related　to　the　seven　deadly　sins。



The　Renaissance　to　a　certain　but　limited　extent　had　broken

through　this　wall　of　Mediaeval　prejudices。　The　Reformation；

however；　which　had　overtaken　the　Renaissance　in　the　early　16th

century；　had　been　hostile　to　the　ideals　of　the　‘‘new　civilisation；''

and　once　more　the　men　of　science　were　threatened　with　severe

punishment；　should　they　try　to　pass　beyond　the　narrow　limits

of　knowledge　which　had　been　laid　down　in　Holy　Writ。



Our　world　is　filled　with　the　statues　of　great　generals；　atop

of　prancing　horses；　leading　their　cheering　soldiers　to　glorious

victory。　Here　and　there；　a　modest　slab　of　marble　announces

that　a　man　of　science　has　found　his　final　resting　place。　A　thousand

years　from　now　we　shall　probably　do　these　things　differently；

and　the　children　of　that　happy　generation　shall　know

of　the　splendid　courage　and　the　almost　inconceivable　devotion

to　duty　of　the　men　who　were　the　pioneers　of　that　abstract

knowledge；　which　alone　has　made　our　modern　world　a　practical

possibility。



Many　of　these　scientific　pioneers　suffered　poverty　and　contempt

and　humiliation。　They　lived　in　garrets　and　died　in　dungeons。

They　dared　not　print　their　names　on　the　title…pages　of

their　books　and　they　dared　not　print　their　conclusions　in　the

land　of　their　birth；　but　smuggled　the　manuscripts　to　some　secret

printing　shop　in　Amsterdam　or　Haarlem。　They　were　exposed

to　the　bitter　enmity　of　the　Church；　both　Protestant　and　Catholic；

and　were　the　subjects　of　endless　sermons；　inciting　the　parishioners

to　violence　against　the　‘‘heretics。''



Here　and　there　they　found　an　asylum。　In　Holland；　where

the　spirit　of　tolerance　was　strongest；　the　authorities；　while

regarding　these　scientific　investigations　with　little　favour；　yet

refused　to　interfere　with　people's　freedom　of　thought。　It　became

a　little　asylum　for　intellectual　liberty　where　French　and

English　and　German　philosophers　and　mathematicians　and

physicians　could　go　to　enjoy　a　short　spell　of　rest　and　get　a

breath　of　free　air。



In　another　chapter　I　have　told　you　how　Roger　Bacon；　the

great　genius　of　the　thirteenth　century；　was　prevented　for　years

from　writing　a　single　word；　lest　he　get　into　new　troubles　with

the　authorities　of　the　church。　And　five　hundred　years　later；　the

contributors　to　the　great　philosophic　‘‘Encyclopaedia''　were　under

the　constant　supervision　of　the　French　gendarmerie。　Half

a　century　afterwards；　Darwin；　who　dared　to　question　the　story

of　the　creation　of　man；　as　revealed　in　the　Bible；　was　denounced

from　every　pulpit　as　an　enemy　of　the　human　race。



Even　to…day；　the　persecution　of　those　who　venture　into　the

unknown　realm　of　science　has　not　entirely　come　to　an　end。

And　while　I　am　writing　this　Mr。　Bryan　is　addressing　a　vast

multitude　on　the　‘‘Menace　of　Darwinism；''　warning　his　hearers

against　the　errors　of　the　great　English　naturalist。



All　this；　however；　is　a　mere　detail。　The　work　that　has　to

be　done　invariably　gets　done；　and　the　ultimate　profit　of　the

discoveries　and　the　inventions　goes　to　the　mass　of　those　same　people

who　have　always　decried　the　man　of　vision　as　an　unpractical　idealist。



The　seventeenth　century　had　still　preferred　to　investigate

the　far　off　heavens　and　to　study　the　position　of　our

planet　in　relation　to　the　solar　system。　Even　so；　the　Church　had

disapproved　of　this　unseemly　curiosity；　and　Copernicus　who

first　of　all　had　proved　that　the　sun　was　the　centre　of　the　universe；

did　not　publish　his　work　until　the　day　of　his　death。　Galileo

spent　the　greater　part　of　his　life　under　the　supervision　of　the

clerical　authorities；　but　he　continued　to　use　his　telescope　and

provided　Isaac　Newton　with　a　mass　of　practical　observations；

which　greatly　helped　the　English　mathematician　when　he　dis…

covered　the　existence　of　that　interesting　habit　of　falling　objects

which　came　to　be　known　as　the　Law　of　Gravitation。



That；　for　the　moment　at　least；　exhausted　the　interest　in　the

Heavens；　and　man　began　to　study　the　earth。　The　invention

of　a　workable　microscope；　（a　strange　and　clumsy　little　thing；）

by　Anthony　van　Leeuwenhoek　during　the　last　half　of　the　17th

century；　gave　man　a　chance　to　study　the　‘‘microscopic''　creatures

who　are　responsible　for　so　many　of　his　ailments。　It　laid

the　foundations　of　the　science　of　‘‘bacteriology''　which　in　the

last　forty　years　has　delivered　the　world　from　a　great　number　of

diseases　by　discovering　the　tiny　organisms　which　cause　the

complaint。　It　also　allowed　the　geologists　to　make　a　more

careful　study　of　different　rocks　and　of　the　fossils　（the　petrified

prehistoric　plants）　which　they　found　deep　below　the　surface　of

the　earth。　These　investigations　convinced　them　that　the　earth

must　be　a　great　deal　older　than　was　stated　in　the　book　of

Genesis　and　in　the　year　1830；　Sir　Charles　Lyell　published　his

‘‘Principles　of　Geology''　which　denied　the　story　of　creation　as

related　in　the　Bible　and　gave　a　far　more　wonderful　description

of　slow　growth　and　gradual　development。



At　the　same　time；　the　Marquis　de　Laplace　was　working　on

a　new　theory　of　creation；　which　made　the　earth　a　little　blotch

in　the　nebulous　sea　out　of　which　the　planetary　system　had

been　formed　and　Bunsen　and　Kirchhoff；　by　the　use　of　the

spectroscope；　were　investigating　the　chemical　composition　of　the

stars　and　of　our　good　neighbour；　the　sun；　whose　curious　spots

had　first　been　noticed　by　Galileo。



Meanwhile　after　a　most　bitter　and　relentless　warfar