the origins of contemporary france-4-第25章

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was　not　made　an　apprentice。。。。　　Hortense　de　Beauharnais　was

apprenticed　to　her　mother's　seamstress；　while　Eugene　was　put　with　a

carpenter　in　the　Faubourg　St。　　Germain。〃　The　prevailing　dogmatism　has

a　singular　effect　with　simple…minded　people。　　（Archives　Nationals；　AF。

II。；　135。　　petition　of　Ursule　Riesler；　servant　to　citizen　Estreich　and

arrested　along　with　him；　addressed　to　Garneri；　agent　of　the　Committee

of　Public　Safety。　　She　begs　citizen　Garnerin　to　interest　himself　in

obtaining　her　freedom。　　She　will　devote　her　life　to　praying　to　the

Supreme　Being　for　him；　since　he　will　redeem　her　life。　　He　is　to

furnish　her；　moreover；　with　the　means　for　espousing　a　future　husband；

a　genuine　republican；　by　who　she　is　pregnant；　and　who　would　not　allow

her　to　entertain　any　idea　of　fanatical　capers。









CHAPTER　II。



I。



Reactionary　concept　of　the　State。　　…　Analogy　between　this　idea　of　the

State　and　that　of　antiquity。　　…　Difference　between　antique　and　modern

society。　　…　Changed　circumstances。



The　Jacobin　theory　can　then　be　summarized　in　the　following　points：



*　The　speculative　creation　of　a　curtailed　type　of　human　being。

*　An　effort　to　adapt　the　living　man　to　this　type。

*　The　interference　of　public　authority　in　every　branch　of　public

endeavor。

*　Constraints　put　upon　labor；　trade　and　property；　upon　the　family　and

education；　upon　worship；　habits；　customs　and　sentiments。

*　The　sacrifice　of　the　individual　to　the　community。

*　The　omnipotence　of　the　State。



No　theory　could　be　more　reactionary　since　it　moves　modern　man　back　to

a　type　of　society　which　he；　eighteen　centuries　ago；　had　already　passed

through　and　left　behind。



　During　the　historical　era　proceeding　our　own；　and　especially　in　the

old　Greek　or　Latin　cities；　in　Rome　or　Sparta；　which　the　Jacobins　take

for　their　models；＇1＇　human　society　was　shaped　after　the　pattern　of　an

army　or　convent。　　In　a　convent　as　in　an　army；　one　idea；　absorbing　and

unique；　predominates：



*　The　aim　of　the　monk　is　to　please　God　at　any　sacrifice。

*　The　soldier　makes　every　sacrifice　to　obtain　a　victory。



Accordingly；　each　renounces　every　other　desire　and　entirely　abandons

himself；　the　monk　to　his　rules　and　the　soldier　to　his　drill。　　In　like

manner；　in　the　antique　world；　two　preoccupations　were　of　supreme

importance。　　In　the　first　place；　the　city　had　its　gods　who　were　both

its　founders　and　protectors：　it　was　therefore　obliged　to　worship　these

in　the　most　reverent　and　particular　manner；　otherwise；　they　abandoned

it。　　The　neglect　of　any　insignificant　rite　might　offend　them　and　ruin

it。　　In　the　second　place；　there　was　incessant　warfare；　and　the　spoils

of　war　were　atrocious；　on　a　city　being　taken　every　citizen　might

expect　to　be　killed　or　maimed；　or　sold　at　auction；　and　see　his

children　and　wife　sold　to　the　highest　bidder。＇2＇　In　short；　the　antique

city；　with　its　acropolis　of　temples　and　its　fortified　citadel

surrounded　by　implacable　and　threatening　enemies；　resembles　for　us　the

institution　of　the　Knights　of　St。　　John　on　their　rocks　at　Rhodes　or

Malta；　a　religious　and　military　confraternity　encamped　around　a

church。　　…　Liberty；　under　such　conditions；　is　out　of　the　question：

public　convictions　are　too　imperious；　public　danger　is　too　great。

With　this　pressure　upon　him；　and　thus　hampered；　the　individual　gives

himself　up　to　the　community；　which　takes　full　possession　of　him；

because；　to　maintain　its　own　existence；　it　needs　the　whole　man。

Henceforth；　no　one　may　develop　apart　and　for　himself；　no　one　may　act

or　think　except　within　fixed　lines。　　The　type　of　Man　is　distinctly　and

clearly　marked　out；　if　not　logically　at　least　traditionally；　each

life；　as　well　as　each　portion　of　each　life　must　conform　to　this　type；

otherwise　public　security　is　compromised：　any　falling　off　in　gymnastic

education　weakens　the　army；　passing　the　images　of　the　gods　and

neglecting　the　usual　libation　draws　down　celestial　vengeance　on　the

city。　　Consequently；　to　prevent　all　deviations；　the　State；　absolute

master；　exercises　unlimited　jurisdiction；　no　freedom　whatever　is　left

to　the　individual；　no　portion　of　himself　is　reserved　to　himself；　no

sheltered　corner　against　the　strong　hand　of　public　force；　neither　his

possessions；　his　children；　his　personality；　his　opinions　or　his

conscience。＇3＇　If；　on　voting　days；　he　shares　in　the　sovereignty；　he　is

subject　all　the　rest　of　the　year；　even　to　his　private　sentiments。

Rome；　to　serve　these　ends；　had　two　censors。　　One　of　the　archons　of

Athens　was　inquisitor　of　the　faith。　　Socrates　was　put　to　death　for　not

believing　in　the　gods　in　which　the　city　believed。＇4＇　…　In　reality；　not

only　in　Greece　and　in　Rome；　but　in　Egypt；　in　China；　in　India；　in

Persia；　in　Judea；　in　Mexico；　in　Peru；　during　the　first　stages　of

civilization；＇5＇　the　principle　of　human　communities　is　still　that　of

gregarious　animals：　the　individual　belongs　to　his　community　the　same

as　the　bee　to　its　hive　and　the　ant　to　its　ant…hill；　he　is　simply　an

organ　within　an　organism。　　Under　a　variety　of　structures　and　in

diverse　applications　authoritative　socialism　alone　prevails。



Just　the　opposite　in　modern　society；　what　was　once　the　rule　has　now

become　the　exception；　the　antique　system　survives　only　in　temporary

associations；　like　that　of　an　army；　or　in　special　associations；　as　in

a　convent。　　Gradually；　the　individual　has　liberated　himself；　and

century　after　century；　he　has　extended　his　domain　and　the　two　chains

which　once　bound　him　fast　to　the　community；　have　snapped　or　been

lightened。



In　the　first　place；　public　power　has　ceased　to　consist　of　a　militia

protecting　a　cult。　　In　the　beginning；　through　the　institution　of

Christianity；　civil　society　and　religious　society　have　become　two

distinct　empires；　Christ　himself　having　separated　the　two

jurisdictions；



　〃Render　unto　C？sar　the　things　which　are　C？sar's；　and　unto　God　the

things　that　are　God's。〃



Additionally；　through　the　rise　of　Protestantism；　the　great　Church　is

split　into　numerous　sects　which；　unable　to　destroy　each　other；　have

been　so　compelled　to　live　together　and　the　State；　even　when　preferring

one　of　them；　has　found　it　necessary　to　tolerate　the　others。　　Finally；

through　the　development　of　Protestantism；　philosophy　and　the　sciences；

speculative　beliefs　have　multiplied。　　There　are　almost　as　many　faiths

now…a…days　as　there　are　thinking　men；　and；　as　thinking　men　are

becoming　daily　more　numerous；　opinions　are　daily　becoming　more

numerous。　　So　should　the　State　try　to　impose　any　one　of　these　on

society；　this　would　excite　opposition　from　an　infinity　of　others；

hence　the　wisdom　in　governing　is　found；　first；　in　remaining　neutral；

and；　next；　in　acknowledging　that　it　is　not　qualified　to　interfere。



In　the　second　place；　war　has　become　less　frequent　and　less　destructive

because　men　have　not　so　many　motives　for　waging　it；　nor　the　same

motives　to　push　it　to　the　same　extremes。　　Formerly；　war　was　the　main

source　of　wealth；　through　victories　Man　acquired　slaves；　subjects　and

tributaries；　he　turned　these　to　the　best　account；　he　leisurely　enjoyed

their　forced　labor。　　Nothing　of　this　kind　is　seen　now…a…days；　people

no　longer　think　of　providing　themselves　human　cattle；　they　have

discovered　that；　of　all　animals；　these　are　the　most　troublesome；　the

least　productive；　and　the　most　dangerous。　　Comforts　and　security　are

obtained　much　more　readily　through　free　labor　and　machinery；　the　great

object　no　is　not　to　conquer；　but　to　produce　and　interchange。　　Every

day；　man；　pressing　forward　more　eagerly　in　civil　careers；　is　less

disposed　to　put　up　with　any　obstacle　that　interferes　with　his　aims；　if

he　still　consents　to　be　a　soldier　it　is　not　to　become　an　invader；　but

to　provide　against　invasion。　　Meanwhile；　war　has　become　more

scientific　and；　through　the　complications　of　its　machinery；　more

costly；　the　State　can　no　longer　call　out　and　enlist　for　life　every

able…bodied　man　without　ruining　itself；　nor　put　too　many　obstacles　in

the　way　of　the　free　industry　which；　through　taxation；　provides　for　its

expenses；　however　short…sighted　the　State　may　be；　it　consults　civil

interests；　even　in　its　military　interest。　　…　Thus；　of　the　two　nets　in

which　it　has　enveloped　all　human　activity；　one　is　rent　asunder　and　the

other　has　slackened　its　meshes。　　There　is　no　longer　any　reason　for

making　the　community　omnipotent；　the　individual　need　not　alienate

himself　entirely；　he　may；　without　inconvenience；　reserve　to　himself　a

part　of　himself；　and；　if　now　called　upon　to　sign　a　social　contract；

you　may　be　sure　that　he　would　make　this　reservation。





II



Changed　minds。　　…　Conscience　and　its　Christian　origin。　　…　Honor　and

its　feudal　origin。　　…　The　individual　of　to…day　refuses　to　surrender

himself　entirely。　　…　His　motives。　　…　Additional　motives　in　modern

democracy。　　…　Character　of　the　elective　process　and　the　quality　of　the

representative。



And　so　have　not　only　outward　circumstances　changed；　but　the　very　human

attitudes　are　now　different。　　In　the　mind　of　modern　man　a　feeling；

distasteful　to　the　antique　pact；　has　evolved。　　…　Undoubtedly；　in

extreme　cases　and　under　the　pressure　of　brutal　necessity　I　may；

momentarily；　sign　a　blank　check。　　But；　never；　if　I　understand　what　I

am　doing；　will　I　sign　away　in　good　faith　the　complete　and　permanent

abandonment　of　myself：　it　would　be　against　conscience　and　against

honor；　which　two　possessions　are　not　to　be　alienated。　　My　honor　and　my

conscience　are　not　to　go　out　of　my　keeping；　I　am　their　sole　guardian

and　depositary；　I　would　not　even　entrust　them　to　my　father。　　…　Both

these　terms　are　recent　and　express　two　conceptions　unknown　to　the

ancients；＇6＇　both　being　of　profound　import　and　of　infinite　reach。

Through　them；　like　a　bud　separated　from　its　stem　and　taking　root

apart；　the　individual　has　separated　himself　from　the　primitive　body；

clan；　family；　caste　or　city　in　which　he　has　lived　indistinguishable

and　lost　in　the　crowd；　he　has　ceased　to　be　an　organ　and　appendage；　he

has　become　a　personality。　　…　The　first　of　these　concepts　is　of

Christian　origin　the　second　of　feudal　origin；　both；　following　each

other　and　conjoined；　measure　the　enormous　distance　which　separates　an

antique　soul　from　a　modern　soul。＇7＇



Alone；　in　the　presence　of　God；　the　Christian　has　felt　melting；　like

wax；　all　the　ties　binding　him　to　his　group；　this　because　he　is　in

front　of　the　Great　Judge；　and　because　this　infallible　judge　sees　all

souls　as　they　are；　not　confusedly　and　in　masses；　but　clearly；　each　by

itself。　　At　the　bar　of　His　tribunal　no　one　is　answerable　for　another；

each　answers　for　himself　alone；　one　is　responsible　only　for　one's　own

acts。　　But　those　acts　are　of　infinite　consequence；　for　the　soul；

redeemed　by　the　blood　of　a　God；　is　of　immeasurable　value；　hence；

according　as　it　has　or　has　not　profited　by　the　divine　sacrifice；　so

will　the　reward　or　punishment　be　infinite；　at　the　final　judgment；　an

eternity　of　torment　or　bliss　opens　before　it。　　Al