the origins of contemporary france-4-第26章

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will　the　reward　or　punishment　be　infinite；　at　the　final　judgment；　an

eternity　of　torment　or　bliss　opens　before　it。　　All　other　interests

vanish　alongside　of　a　vision　of　such　vastness。　　Thenceforth；

righteousness　is　the　most　serious　of　all　aims；　not　in　the　eyes　of　man；

but　of　God　and　again；　day　after　day；　the　soul　renews　within　itself

that　tragic　questioning　in　which　the　Judge　interrogates　and　the　sinner

responds。…　Through　this　dialogue；　which　has　been　going　on　for　eighteen

centuries；　and　which　is　yet　to　continue；　conscience　has　grown　more　and

more　sensitive；　and　man　has　conceived　the　idea　of　absolute　justice。

Whether　this　is　vested　in　an　all…powerful　master；　or　whether　it　is　a

self…existent　truth；　like　mathematical　truths；　in　no　way　diminishes

its　sacredness　nor；　consequently；　from　its　authority。　　It　commands

with　a　superior　voice　and　its　commands　must　be　obeyed；　irrespective　of

cost：　there　are　strict　duties　to　which　every　man　is　rigorously　bound。

No　pledge　may　relieve　him　of　these　duties；　if　not　fulfilled　because　he

has　given　contrary　pledges　he　is　no　less　culpable　on　this　account；　and

besides；　he　is　culpable　for　having　pledged　himself；　the　pledging　of

himself　to　crimes　was　in　itself　a　crime。　　His　fault　thus　appears　to

himself　twofold；　and　the　inward　prick　galls　him　twice　instead　of　once。

Hence；　the　more　sensitive　the　conscience；　the　more　loath　it　is　to　give

up；　it　rejects　any　promise　which　may　lead　to　wrong…doing；　and　refuses

to　give　to　give　others　any　right　of　imposing　remorse。



At　the　same　time　another　sentiment　has　arisen；　not　less　valuable；　but

hardier；　more　energetic；　more　human　and　more　effective。　　On　his　own　in

his　stronghold；　the　feudal　chieftain；　at　the　head　of　his　band；　could

depend　on　nobody　but　himself；　for　a　public　force　did　not　then　exist。

It　was　necessary　that　he　should　protect　himself；　and；　indeed；　over…

protect　himself。　　Whoever；　in　the　anarchical　and　military　society　in

which　he　lived；　allowed　the　slightest　encroachment；　or　left　unpunished

the　slightest　approach　to　insult；　was　regarded　as　weak　or　craven　and

at　once　became　a　prey；　one　had　to　be　proud…spirited；　if　not；　one

risked　death。　　This　was　not　difficult　either。　　Sole　proprietor　and

nearly　absolute　sovereign；　with　neither　equals　or　peers　on　his　domain；

here　he　was　unique　being；　superior　and　incomparable　to　every　one

else。＇8＇　　On　that　subject　revolved　his　long　monologue　during　his　hours

of　gloomy　solitude；　which　soliloquy　has　lasted　for　nine　centuries。＇9＇

Thus　in　his　own　eyes；　his　person　and　all　that　depends　on　him　are

inviolable；　rather　than　tolerate　the　slightest　infringement　on　his

prerogatives　he　will　dare　all　and　sacrifice　all。＇10＇　A　sensitive　pride

（orgueil　exalté）　is　the　best　of　sentinels　to　protect　a　right；　for；　not

only　does　it　mount　guard　over　the　right　to　preserve　it；　but；　again；

and　especially；　for　its　own　satisfaction；　the　imagination　has

conceived　a　personality　appropriate　for　his　rank；　and　this　character

the　man　imposes　on　himself　as　his　role。　　Henceforth；　he　not　only

forces　the　respect　of　others；　but　he　respects　himself；　he　possesses

the　sentiment　of　honor；　a　generous　self…esteem　which　makes　him　regard

himself　as　noble　and　incapable　of　doing　anything　mean。　　In

discriminating　between　his　actions；　he　may　err；　fashion　or　vanity　may

sometimes　lead　him　too　far；　or　lead　him　astray；　either　on　the　path　of

recklessness　or　on　that　of　puerility；　his　point　of　honor　may　be　fixed

in　the　wrong　direction。　　But；　in　sum；　and　thanks　to　this　being　a　fixed

point；　he　will　maintain　himself　erect　even　under　an　absolute　monarchy；

under　a　Philip　II。　　in　Spain；　under　a　Louis　XIV。　　in　France；　under　a

Frederick　II。　　in　Prussia。　　From　the　feudal　baron　or　gentleman　of　the

court　to　the　modern　gentleman；　this　tradition　persists　and　descends

from　story　to　story　down　to　lowest　social　substratum：　to…day；　every

man　of　spirit；　the　bourgeois；　the　peasant；　the　workman；　has　his　point

of　honor　like　the　noble。　　He　likewise；　in　spite　of　the　social

encroachments　that　gain　on　him；　reserves　to　himself　his　private　nook；

a　sort　of　moral　stronghold　wherein　he　preserves　his　faiths；　his

opinions；　his　affections；　his　obligations　as　son；　husband　and　father；

it　is　the　sacred　treasury　of　his　innermost　being。　　This　stronghold

belongs　to　him　alone；　no　one；　even　in　the　name　of　the　public；　has　a

right　to　enter　it；　to　surrender　it　would　be　cowardice；　rather　than

give　up　its　keys　he　would　die　in　the　breach；＇11＇　when　this　militant

sentiment　of　honor　is　enlisted　on　the　side　of　conscience　it　becomes

virtue　itself。＇12＇　…　Such　are；　in　these　days；　（1870）　the　two　central

themes　of　our　European　morality。＇13＇　　Through　the　former　the

individual　recognizes　duties　from　which　nothing　can　exempt　him；

through　the　latter；　he　claims　rights　of　which　nothing　can　deprive　him：

our　civilization　has　vegetated　from　these　two　roots；　and　still

vegetates。　　Consider　the　depth　and　the　extent　of　the　historical　soil

in　which　they　penetrate；　and　you　may　judge　of　their　vigor。　　Consider

the　height　and　unlimited　growth　of　the　trees　which　they　nourish；　and

you　may　judge　of　their　healthiness。　　Everywhere　else；　one　or　other

having　failed；　in　China；　in　the　Roman　Empire；　in　Islam；　the　sap　has

dried　downward　and　the　tree　has　become　stunted；　or　has　fallen。。。。　　It

is　the　modern　man；　who　is　neither　Chinese；　nor　antique；　nor　Moslem；

nor　Negro；　nor　savage；　the　man　formed　by　Christian　education　and

taking　refuge　in　his　conscience　as　in　a　sanctuary；　the　man　formed　by

feudal　education　and　entrenched　behind　his　honor　as　in　a　fortress；

whose　sanctuary　and　stronghold　the　new　social　contract　bids　him

surrender。



Now；　in　this　democracy　founded　on　the　preponderance　of　numbers；　into

whose　hands　am　I　required　to　make　this　surrender？　…　Theoretically；　to

the　community；　that　is　to　say；　to　a　crowd　in　which　an　anonymous

impulse　is　the　substitute　for　individual　judgment；　in　which　action

becomes　impersonal　because　it　is　collective；　in　which　nobody

acknowledges　responsibility；　in　which　I　am　borne　along　like　a　grain　of

sand　in　a　whirlwind；　in　which　all　sorts　of　outrages　are　condoned

beforehand　for　reasons　of　state：　practically；　to　the　plurality　of

voices　counted　by　heads；　to　a　majority　which；　over…excited　by　the

struggle　for　mastery；　will　abuse　its　victory　and　wrong　the　minority　to

which　I　may　belong；　to　a　provisional　majority　which；　sooner　or　later；

will　be　replaced　by　another；　so　that　if　I　am　to…day　oppressor　I　am

sure　of　being　oppressed　to…morrow；　still　more　particularly；　to　six　or

seven　hundred　representatives；　among　who　I　am　called　upon　to　choose

but　one。　　To　elect　this　unique　mandatory　I　have　but　one　vote　among　ten

thousand；　and　in　helping　to　elect　him　I　am　only　the　ten…thousandth；　I

do　not　even　count　for　a　ten…thousandth　in　electing　the　others。　　And　it

is　these　six　or　seven　hundred　strangers　to　me　to　who　I　give　full　power

to　decide　for　me　…　note　the　expression　full　power　…　which　means

unlimited　power；　not　alone　over　my　possessions　and　life；　but；　again；

over　my　conscience；　with　all　its　powers　combined；　that　is　to　say；　with

powers　much　more　extensive　than　those　I　confer　separately　on　ten

persons　in　whom　I　place　the　most　confidence　…　to　my　legal　adviser　who

looks　after　my　fortune；　to　the　teacher　of　my　children；　to　the

physician　who　cares　for　my　health；　to　the　confessor　who　directs　my

conscience；　to　friends　who　are　to　serve　as　executors　of　my　last　will

and　testament；　to　seconds　in　a　duel　who　decide　on　my　life；　on　the　was

of　my　blood　and　who　guard　my　honor。　　Without　reference　to　the

deplorable　farce；　so　often　played　around　the　ballot…box；　or　to　the

forced　and　distorted　elections　which　put　a　contrary　interpretation　on

public　sentiment；　or　to　the　official　lies　by　which；　at　this　very

moment；　a　few　fanatics　and　madmen；　who　represent　nobody　but

themselves；　assume　to　represent　the　nation；＇14＇　measure　what　degree　of

confidence　I　may　have；　even　after　honest　elections；　in　mandatories　who

are　thus　chosen！　Frequently；　I　have　voted　for　the　defeated　candidate；

in　which　case　I　am　represented　by　the　other　who　I　did　not　want　for　a

representative。　　In　voting　for　the　elected　candidate；　I　did　it　because

I　knew　of　no　better　one；　and　because　his　opponent　seemed　to　me　worse。

I　have　only　seen　him　one　time　out　of　four　and　then　fleetingly；　at　odd

moment；　I　scarcely　knew　more　of　him　than　the　color　of　his　coat；　the

tone　of　his　voice；　and　the　way　he　has　of　thumping　his　breast。　　All　I

know　of　him　is　through　his　〃platform；〃　vague　and　declamatory；　through

editorials；　and　through　drawing…room；　coffee…house；　or　street　gossip。

His　title　to　my　confidence　is　of　the　flimsiest　and　shallowest　kind；

there　is　nothing　to　substantiate　to　me　his　integrity　or　competency；　he

has　no　diploma；　and　no　one　to　endorse　him　as　has　a　private　tutor；　he

has　no　guarantee　from　the　society　to　which　he　belongs；　like　the

physician；　the　priest　or　the　lawyer。　　With　references　as　poor　as　these

I　should　hesitate　to　recruit　him　even　as　a　domestic。　　And　all　the　more

because　the　class　from　which　I　am　obliged　to　take　him　is　almost　always

that　of　politicians；　a　suspicious　class；　especially　in　countries　in

which　universal　suffrage　prevails。　　This　class　is　not　recruited　among

the　most　independent；　the　ablest；　and　the　most　honest；　but　among

voluble；　scheming　men；　zealous　charlatans；　who　for　want　of

perseverance；　having　failed　in　private　careers；　in　situations　where

one　is　watched　too　closely　and　too　nicely　weighed　in　the　balance；　have

selected　roles　in　which　the　want　of　scrupulousness　and　discretion　is　a

force　instead　of　a　weakness；　to　their　indelicacy　and　impudence　the

doors　of　a　public　career　stand　wide　open。　　…　Such　is　the　august

personage　into　whose　hands；　according　to　the　theory；　I　am　called　upon

to　surrender　my　will；　my　will　in　full；　certainly；　if　self…renunciation

were　necessary；　I　should　risk　less　in　giving　myself　up　to　a　king　or　to

an　aristocracy；　even　hereditary；　for　then　would　my　representatives　be

at　least　recommended　by　their　evident　rank　and　their　probable

competency。　　…　Democracy；　in　its　nature　and　composition；　is　a　system

in　which　the　individual　awards　to　his　representatives　the　least　trust

and　deference；　hence；　it　is　the　system　in　which　he　should　entrust　them

with　the　least　power。　　Conscience　and　honor　everywhere　enjoin　a　man　to

retain　for　himself　some　portion　of　his　independence；　but　nowhere　is

there　so　little　be　ceded。　　　If　a　modern　constitution　ought　to　clearly

define　and　limit　the　domain　of　the　State；　it　is　in　respect　of

contemporary　democracy　that　it　ought　to　be　the　most　restrictive。



III。



Origin　and　nature　of　the　modern　State。　　…　Its　functions；　rights　and

limits。



Let　us　try　to　define　these　limits。　　…　After　the　turmoil　of　invasions

and　conquest；　at　the　height　of　social　disintegration；　amidst　the

combats　daily　occurring　between　private　parties；　there　arose　in　every

European　community　a　public　force　；　which　force；　lasting　for

centuries；　st