the origins of contemporary france-4-第97章

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*　After　the　declaration　of　war　with　all　Europe；　the　commerce　of　the

continent。＇16＇



Failure　after　failure；　an　universal　crash；　utter　cessation　of

extensively　organized　and　productive　labor：　instead　of　productive

industries；　I　see　none　now　but　destructive　industries；　those　of　the

agricultural　and　commercial　vermin；　those　of　dealers　in　junk　and

speculators　who　dismantle　mansions　and　abbeys；　and　who　demolish

chateaux　and　churches　so　as　to　sell　the　materials　as　cheap　as　dirt；

who　bargain　away　national　possessions；　so　as　to　make　a　profit　on　the

transaction。　　Imagine　the　mischief　a　temporary　owner；　steeped　in　debt；

needy　and　urged　on　by　the　maturity　of　his　engagements；　can　and　must　do

to　an　estate　held　under　a　precarious　title　and　of　suspicious

acquirement；　which　he　has　no　idea　of　keeping；　and　from　which；

meanwhile；　he　derives　every　possible　benefit：＇17＇　not　only　does　he　put

no　spokes　in　the　mill…wheel；　no　stones　in　the　dyke；　no　tiles　on　the

roof；　but　he　buys　no　manure；　exhausts　the　soil；　devastates　the　forest；

alienates　the　fields；　and　dismembers　the　entire　farm；　damaging　the

ground　and　the　stock　of　tools　and　injuring　the　dwelling　by　selling　its

mirrors；　lead　and　iron；　and　oftentimes　the　window…shutters　and　doors。

He　turns　all　into　cash；　no　matter　how；　at　the　expense　of　the　domain；

which　he　leaves　in　a　run…down　condition；　unfurnished　and　for　a　long

time　unproductive。　　In　like　manner；　the　communal　possessions；　ravaged；

pillaged　and　then　pieced　out　and　divided　off；　are　so　many　organisms

which　are　sacrificed　for　the　immediate　relief　of　the　village　poor；　but

of　course　to　the　detriment　of　their　future　productiveness　and　an

abundant　yield。＇18＇



Alone；　amongst　these　millions　of　men　who　have　stopped　working；　or　work

the　wrong　way；　the　petty　cultivator　labors　to　advantage；　free　of

taxes；　of　tithes　and　of　feudal　imposts；　possessing　a　scrap　of　ground

which　he　has　obtained　for　almost　nothing　or　without　stretching　his

purse　strings；　he　works　in　good　spirits。＇19＇　　He　is　sure　that

henceforth　his　crop　will　no　longer　be　eaten　up　by　the　levies　of　the

seignior；　of　the　décimateur　and　of　the　King；　that　it　will　belong　to

him；　that　it　will　be　wholly　his；　and　that　the　worse　the　famine　in　the

towns；　the　dearer　he　will　sell　his　produce。　　Hence；　he　has　ploughed

more　vigorously　than　ever；　he　has　even　cleared　waste　ground；　getting

the　soil　gratis；　or　nearly　so；　and　having　to　make　but　few　advances；

having　no　other　use　for　his　advances；　consisting　of　seed；　manure；　the

work　of　his　cattle　and　of　his　own　hands；　he　has　planted；　reaped　and

raised　grain　with　the　greatest　energy。　　Perhaps　other　articles　of

consumption　will　be　scarce；　it　may　be　that；　owing　to　the　ruin　of　other

branches　of　industry；　it　will　be　hard　to　get　dry…goods；　shoes；　sugar；

soap；　oil；　candles；　wine　and　brandy；　it　may　happen　that；　owing　to　the

bungling　way　in　which　agricultural　transformations　have　been　effected；

all　produce　of　the　secondary　order；　meat；　vegetables；　butter　and　eggs；

may　become　scarce。　　In　any　event；　French　foodstuffs　par　excellence　is

on　hand；　standing　in　the　field　or　stored　in　sheaves　in　the　barns；　in

1792　and　1793；　and　even　in　1794；　there　is　enough　grain　in　France　to

provide　every　French　inhabitant　with　his　daily　bread。＇20＇



But　that　is　not　enough。　　In　order　that　each　Frenchman　may　obtain　his

bit　of　bread　every　day；　it　is　still　essential　that　grain　should　reach

the　markets　in　sufficient　quantities；　and　that　the　bakers　should　every

day　have　enough　flour　to　make　all　the　bread　that　is　required；

moreover；　the　bread　offered　for　sale　in　the　bakeries　should　not　exceed

the　price　which　the　majority　of　consumers　can　afford　to　pay。　　Now；　in

fact；　through　a　forced　result　of　the　new　system；　neither　of　these

conditions　is　fulfilled。　　…　In　the　first　place；　wheat；　and　hence

bread；　is　too　dear。　　Even　at　the　old　rate；　these　would　still　be　too

dear　for　the　innumerable　empty　or　half…empty　purses；　after　so　many

attacks　on　property；　industry　and　trade；　now　that　so　many　hundreds　of

workmen　and　employees　are　out　of　work；　now　that　so　many　land…owners

and　bourgeois　receive　no　rents；　now　that　incomes；　profits；　wages　and

salaries　have　diminished　by　hundreds　of　thousands。　　But　wheat；　and；

consequently；　bread；　has　not　remained　at　old　rates。　　Formerly　a　sack

of　wheat　in　Paris　was　worth　50　francs。　　In　February；　1793；　it　is　worth

sixty…five　francs；　in　May；　1793；　one　hundred　francs　and　then　one

hundred　and　fifty；　and　hence　bread；　in　Paris；　early　in　1793；　instead

of　being　three　sous　the　pound；　costs　six　sous；　in　many　of　the　southern

departments　seven　and　eight　sous；　and　in　other　places　ten　and　twelve

sous。＇21＇　The　reason　is；　that；　since　August　10；　1792；　after　the　King's

fall　and　the　wrenching　away　of　the　ancient　keystone　of　the　arch　which

still　kept　the　loosened　stones　of　the　social　edifice　in　place；　the

frightened　peasant　would　no　longer　part　with　his　produce；　he

determined　not　to　take　assignats；　not　to　let　his　grain　go　for　anything

but　ringing　coin。　　To　exchange　good　wheat　for　bad；　dirty　paper　rags

seemed　to　him　a　trick；　and　justly　so；　for；　on　going　to　town　every

month　he　found　that　the　dealers　gave　him　less　merchandise　for　these

rags。　　Being　distrustful　and　a　hoarder；　he　must　have　good；　old

fashioned　crowns；　with　the　ancient　effigy；　so　as　to　lay　them　away　in　a

jar　or　old　woollen　stocking；　give　him　specie　or　he　will　keep　his

grain。　　For　he　is　not；　as　formerly；　obliged　to　part　with　it　as　soon　as

it　is　cut；　to　pay　taxes　and　rent；　the　bailiff　and　sheriff　are　no

longer　there　to　constrain　him；　in　these　times　of　disorder　and

demagoguism；　under　impotent　or　partial　authorities；　neither　the　public

nor　the　private　creditor　has　the　power　to　compel　payment；　while　the

spurs　which　formerly　impelled　the　farmer　to　seek　the　nearest　market

are　blunted　or　broken。　　He　therefore　stays　away；　and　he　has　excellent

reasons　for　so　doing。　　Vagabonds　and　the　needy　stand　by　the　roadside

and　at　the　entrances　of　the　towns　to　stop　and　pillage　the　loaded

carts；　in　the　markets　and　on　the　open　square；　women　cut　open　bags　of

grain　with　their　scissors　and　empty　them；　or　the　municipality；　forced

to　do　it　by　the　crowd；　fixes　the　price　at　a　reduced　rate。＇22＇　…　The

larger　a　town；　the　greater　the　difficulty　in　supplying　its　market；　for

its　provisions　are　drawn　from　a　distance；　each　department；　each

canton；　each　village　keeps　its　own　grain　for　itself　by　means　of　legal

requisitions　or　by　brutal　force；　it　is　impossible　for　wholesale

dealers　in　grain　to　make　bargains；　they　are　styled　monopolists；　and

the　mob；　breaking　into　their　storehouses；　hangs　them　out　of

preference。＇23＇　　As　the　government；　accordingly；　has　proclaimed　their

speculations　〃crimes；〃　it　is　going　to　interdict　their　trade　and

substitute　itself　for　them。＇24＇　…　But　this　substitution　only　increases

the　penury　still　more；　in　vain　do　the　towns　force　collections；　tax

their　rich　men；　raise　money　on　loan；　and　burden　themselves　beyond

their　resources；＇25＇　they　only　make　the　matter　worse。　　When　the

municipality　of　Paris　expends　twelve　thousand　francs　a　day　for　the

sale　of　flour　at　a　low　price　in　the　markets；　it　keeps　away　the　flour…

dealers；　who　cannot　deliver　flour　at　such　low　figures；　the　result　is

that　there　is　not　flour　enough　in　the　market　for　the　six　hundred

thousand　mouths　in　Paris；　when　it　expends　seventy…five　thousand　francs

daily　to　indemnify　the　bakers；　it　attracts　the　outside　population；

which　rushes　into　Paris　to　get　bread　cheap；　and　for　the　seven　hundred

thousand　mouths　of　Paris　and　the　suburbs　combined；　the　bakers　have　not

an　adequate　supply。　　Whoever　comes　late　finds　the　shop　empty；

consequently；　everybody　tries　to　get　there　earlier　and　earlier；　at

dawn；　before　daybreak；　and　then　five　or　six　hours　before　daybreak。　　in

February；　1793；　long　lines　of　people　are　already　waiting　at　the

bakers'　door；　these　lines　growing　longer　and　longer　in　April；　while　in

June　they　are　enormously　long。＇26＇　　Naturally；　for　lack　of　bread；

people　fall　back　on　other　aliments；　which　also　grow　dearer；　add　to

this　the　various　contrivances　and　effects　of　Jacobin　politics　which

still　further　increase　the　dearness　of　food　of　all　sorts；　and　also　of

every　other　necessary　article：　for　instance；　the　extremely　bad

condition　of　the　roads；　which　renders　transportation　slower　and　more

costly；　the　prohibition　of　the　export　of　coin　and　hence　the　obtaining

of　food　from　abroad；　the　decree　which　obliges　each　industrial　or

commercial　association；　at　present　or　to　come；　to　〃　pay　annually　into

the　national　treasury　one…quarter　of　the　amount　of　its　dividends；〃　the

revolt　in　Vendée；　which　deprives　Paris　of　six　hundred　oxen　a　week；　the

feeding　of　the　armies；　which　takes　one…half　of　the　cattle　brought　to

the　Poissy　market；　shutting　off　the　sea　and　the　continent；　which　ruins

manufacturers　and　extensive　commercial　operations；　the　insurrections

in　Bordeaux；　Marseilles　and　the　South；　which　still　further　raise　the

price　of　groceries；　sugar；　soap；　oil；　candles；　wine　and　brandy。＇27＇　…

Early　in　1793；　a　pound　of　beef　in　France　is　worth　on　the　average；

instead　of　six　sous　twenty　sous；　in　May；　at　Paris；　brandy　which；　six

months　before；　cost　thirty…five　sous；　costs　ninety…four　sous；　in　July；

a　pound　of　veal；　instead　of　five　sous；　costs　twenty…two　sous。　　Sugar；

from　twenty　sous；　advances　to　four　francs　ten　sous；　a　candle　costs

seven　sous。　　France；　pushed　on　by　the　Jacobins；　approaches　the　depths

of　misery；　entering　the　first　circle　of　its　Inferno；　other　circles

follow　down　deeper　and　deeper；　narrower　still　and　yet　more　somber；

under　Jacobin　impulsion　is　she　to　descend　to　the　lowest？







III。　　Privation。



First　and　general　cause　of　privations。　　…　The　socialist　principle　of

the　Revolutionary　government。　　…　Measures　against　large　as　well　as

small　properties。　　…　Expropriation　of　all　remaining　corporations；

enormous　issues　of　paper…money。　　forced　rates　of　its　circulation；

forced　loans；　requisitions　of　coin　and　plate；　revolutionary　taxes；

suppression　of　special　organs　of　labor　on　a　large　scale。　　…　New

measures　against　small　proprietorship。　　…　The　Maximum；　requisitions

for　food　and　labor。　　…　Situation　of　the　shop…keeper；　cultivator　and

laborer。　　…　Effect　of　the　measures　on　labor　on　a　small　scale。

Stoppage　of　sales。



Obviously；　if　the　people　is　not　being　fed　properly　and　in　places　not

at　all；　it　is　because　one　of　the　central　and　most　important　fibers　of

the　economical　machine　has　been　incapacitated。　　It　is　evident　that

this　fiber　controls　the　sentiment　by　which　man　holds　on　to　his

property；　fears　to　risk　it；　refuses　to　depreciate　it；　and　tries　to

increase　it。＇28＇　Obviously　in　the　real　human　being；　such　as　he

actually　is　made　up；　this　intense　sentiment；　tenacious；　always

stirring　and　active；　is　the　magazine　of　inward　energy　which　provides

for　three…fourths；　almost　the　whole；　of　that　unremitting　effort；　that

calculating　attention；　that　determined　perseverance　which　leads　th