democracy in america-1-第1章

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Democracy　In　America；　Volume　1

by　Alexis　de　Toqueville

Translator　…　Henry　Reeve




Book　One


Introduction

Special　Introduction　By　Hon。　John　T。　Morgan

In　the　eleven　years　that　separated　the　Declaration　of　the　Independence　of　the　United　States　from　the　completion　of　that　act　in　the　ordination　of　our　written　Constitution；　the　great　minds　of　America　were　bent　upon　the　study　of　the　principles　of　government　that　were　essential　to　the　preservation　of　the　liberties　which　had　been　won　at　great　cost　and　with　heroic　labors　and　sacrifices。　　Their　studies　were　conducted　in　view　of　the　imperfections　that　experience　had　developed　in　the　government　of　the　Confederation；　and　they　were；　therefore；　practical　and　thorough。

When　the　Constitution　was　thus　perfected　and　established；　a　new　form　of　government　was　created；　but　it　was　neither　speculative　nor　experimental　as　to　the　principles　on　which　it　was　based。　　If　they　were　true　principles；　as　they　were；　the　government　founded　upon　them　was　destined　to　a　life　and　an　influence　that　would　continue　while　the　liberties　it　was　intended　to　preserve　should　be　valued　by　the　human　family。　　Those　liberties　had　been　wrung　from　reluctant　monarchs　in　many　contests；　in　many　countries；　and　were　grouped　into　creeds　and　established　in　ordinances　sealed　with　blood；　in　many　great　struggles　of　the　people。　　They　were　not　new　to　the　people。　　They　were　consecrated　theories；　but　no　government　had　been　previously　established　for　the　great　purpose　of　their　preservation　and　enforcement。　　That　which　was　experimental　in　our　plan　of　government　was　the　question　whether　democratic　rule　could　be　so　organized　and　conducted　that　it　would　not　degenerate　into　license　and　result　in　the　tyranny　of　absolutism；　without　saving　to　the　people　the　power　so　often　found　necessary　of　repressing　or　destroying　their　enemy；　when　he　was　found　in　the　person　of　a　single　despot。

When；　in　1831；　Alexis　de　Tocqueville　came　to　study　Democracy　in　America；　the　trial　of　nearly　a　half…century　of　the　working　of　our　system　had　been　made；　and　it　had　been　proved；　by　many　crucial　tests；　to　be　a　government　of　〃liberty　regulated　by　law；〃　with　such　results　in　the　development　of　strength；　in　population；　wealth；　and　military　and　commercial　power；　as　no　age　had　ever　witnessed。　

＇See　Alexis　De　Tocqueville＇

De　Tocqueville　had　a　special　inquiry　to　prosecute；　in　his　visit　to　America；　in　which　his　generous　and　faithful　soul　and　the　powers　of　his　great　intellect　were　engaged　in　the　patriotic　effort　to　secure　to　the　people　of　France　the　blessings　that　Democracy　in　America　had　ordained　and　established　throughout　nearly　the　entire　Western　Hemisphere。　　He　had　read　the　story　of　the　FrenchRevolution；　much　of　which　had　been　recently　written　in　the　blood　of　men　and　women　of　great　distinction　who　were　his　progenitors；　and　had　witnessed　the　agitations　and　terrors　of　the　Restoration　and　of　the　Second　Republic；　fruitful　in　crime　and　sacrifice；　and　barren　of　any　good　to　mankind。

He　had　just　witnessed　the　spread　of　republican　government　through　all　the　vast　continental　possessions　of　Spain　in　America；　and　the　loss　of　her　great　colonies。　　He　had　seen　that　these　revolutions　were　accomplished　almost　without　the　shedding　of　blood；　and　he　was　filled　with　anxiety　to　learn　the　causes　that　had　placed　republican　government；　in　France；　in　such　contrast　with　Democracy　in　America。

De　Tocqueville　was　scarcely　thirty　years　old　when　he　began　his　studies　of　Democracy　in　America。　　It　was　a　bold　effort　for　one　who　had　no　special　training　in　government；　or　in　the　study　of　political　economy；　but　he　had　the　example　of　Lafayette　in　establishing　the　military　foundation　of　these　liberties；　and　of　Washington；　Jefferson；　Madison；　and　Hamilton；　all　of　whom　were　young　men；　in　building　upon　the　Independence　of　the　United　States　that　wisest　and　best　plan　of　general　government　that　was　ever　devised　for　a　free　people。

He　found　that　the　American　people；　through　their　chosen　representatives　who　were　instructed　by　their　wisdom　and　experience　and　were　supported　by　their　virtues　…　cultivated；　purified　and　ennobled　by　self…reliance　and　the　love　of　God　…　had　matured；　in　the　excellent　wisdom　of　their　counsels；　a　new　plan　of　government；　which　embraced　every　security　for　their　liberties　and　equal　rights　and　privileges　to　all　in　the　pursuit　of　happiness。　　He　came　as　an　honest　and　impartial　student　and　his　great　commentary；　like　those　of　Paul；　was　written　for　the　benefit　of　all　nations　and　people　and　in　vindication　of　truths　that　will　stand　for　their　deliverance　from　monarchical　rule；　while　time　shall　last。

A　French　aristocrat　of　the　purest　strain　of　blood　and　of　the　most　honorable　lineage；　whose　family　influence　was　coveted　by　crowned　heads；　who　had　no　quarrel　with　the　rulers　of　the　nation；　and　was　secure　against　want　by　his　inherited　estates；　was　moved　by　the　agitations　that　compelled　France　to　attempt　to　grasp　suddenly　the　liberties　and　happiness　we　had　gained　in　our　revolution　and；　by　his　devout　love　of　France；　to　search　out　and　subject　to　the　test　of　reason　the　basic　principles　of　free　government　that　had　been　embodied　in　our　Constitution。　　This　was　the　mission　of　De　Tocqueville；　and　no　mission　was　ever　more　honorably　or　justly　conducted；　or　concluded　with　greater　eclat；　or　better　results　for　the　welfare　of　mankind。

His　researches　were　logical　and　exhaustive。　　They　included　every　phase　of　every　question　that　then　seemed　to　be　apposite　to　the　great　inquiry　he　was　making。

The　judgment　of　all　who　have　studied　his　commentaries　seems　to　have　been　unanimous；　that　his　talents　and　learning　were　fully　equal　to　his　task。　　He　began　with　the　physical　geography　of　this　country；　and　examined　the　characteristics　of　the　people；　of　all　races　and　conditions；　their　social　and　religious　sentiments；　their　education　and　tastes；　their　industries；　their　commerce；　their　local　governments；　their　passions　and　prejudices；　and　their　ethics　and　literature；　leaving　nothing　unnoticed　that　might　afford　an　argument　to　prove　that　our　plan　and　form　of　government　was　or　was　not　adapted　especially　to　a　peculiar　people；　or　that　it　would　be　impracticable　in　any　different　country；　or　among　any　different　people。

The　pride　and　comfort　that　the　American　people　enjoy　in　the　great　commentaries　of　De　Tocqueville　are　far　removed　from　the　selfish　adulation　that　comes　from　a　great　and　singular　success。　　It　is　the　consciousness　of　victory　over　a　false　theory　of　government　which　has　afflicted　mankind　for　many　ages；　that　gives　joy　to　the　true　American；　as　it　did　to　De　Tocqueville　in　his　great　triumph。　　

When　De　Tocqueville　wrote；　we　had　lived　less　than　fifty　years　under　our　Constitution。　　In　that　time　no　great　national　commotion　had　occurred　that　tested　its　strength；　or　its　power　of　resistance　to　internal　strife；　such　as　had　converted　his　beloved　France　into　fields　of　slaughter　torn　by　tempests　of　wrath。

He　had　a　strong　conviction　that　no　government　could　be　ordained　that　could　resist　these　internal　forces；　when；　they　are　directed　to　its　destruction　by　bad　men；　or　unreasoning　mobs；　and　many　then　believed；　as　some　yet　believe；　that　our　government　is　unequal　to　such　pressure；　when　the　assault　is　thoroughly　desperate。　

Had　De　Tocqueville　lived　to　examine　the　history　of　the　United　States　from　1860　to　1870；　his　misgivings　as　to　this　power　of　self…　preservation　would；　probably；　have　been　cleared　off。　　He　would　have　seen　that；　at　the　end　of　the　most　destructive　civil　war　that　ever　occurred；　when　animosities　of　the　bitterest　sort　had　banished　all　good　feeling　from　the　hearts　of　our　people；　the　States　of　the　American　Union；　still　in　complete　organization　and　equipped　with　all　their　official　entourage；　aligned　themselves　in　their　places　and　took　up　the　powers　and　duties　of　local　government　in　perfect　order　and　without　embarrassment。　　This　would　have　dispelled　his　apprehensions；　if　he　had　any；　about　the　power　of　the　United　States　to　withstand　the　severest　shocks　of　civil　war。　　Could　he　have　traced　the　further　course　of　events　until　they　open　the　portals　of　the　twentieth　century；　he　would　have　cast　away　his　fears　of　our　ability　to　restore　peace；　order；　and　prosperity；　in　the　face　of　any　difficulties；　and　would　have　rejoiced　to　find　in　the　Constitution　of　the　United　States　the　remedy　that　is　provided　for　the　healing　of　the　nation。

De　Tocqueville　examined；　with　the　care　that　is　worthy　the　importance　of　the　subject；　the　nature　and　value　of　the　system　of　〃local　self…government；〃　as　we　style　this　most　important　feature　of　our　plan；　and　（as　has　often　happened）　when　this　or　any　subject　has　become　a　matter　of　anxious　concern；　his　treatment　of　the　questions　is　found　to　have　been　masterly　and　his　preconceptions　almost　prophetic。

We　are　frequently　indebted　to　him　for　able　expositions　and　true　doctrines　relating　to　subjects　that　have　slumbered　in　the　minds　of　the　people　until　they　were　suddenly　forced　on　our　attention　by　unexpected　events。

In　his　introductory　chapter；　M。　De　Tocqueville　says：　〃Amongst　the　novel　objects　that　attracted　my　attention　during　my　stay　in　the　United　States；　nothing　struck　me　more　forcibly　than　the　general　equality　of　conditions。〃　He　referred；　doubtless；　to　social　and　political　conditions　among　the　people　of　the　white　race；　who　are　described　as　〃We；　the　people；〃　in　the　opening　sentence　of　the　Constitution。　　The　last　three　amendments　of　the　Constitution　have　so　changed　this；　that　those　who　were　then　negro　slaves　are　clothed　with　the　rights　of　citizenship；　including　the　right　of　suffrage。　　This　was　a　political　party　movement；　intended　to　be　radical　and　revolutionary；　but　it　will；　ultimately；　react　because　it　has　not　the　sanction　of　public　opinion。

If　M。　De　Tocqueville　could　now　search　for　a　law　that　would　negative　this　provision　in　its　effect　upon　social　equality；　he　would　fail　to　find　it。　　But　he　would　find　it　in　the　unwritten　law　of　the　natural　aversion　of　the　races。　He　would　find　it　in　public　opinion；　which　is　the　vital　force　in　every　law　in　a　free　government。　　This　is　a　subject　that　our　Constitution　failed　to　regulate；　because　it　was　not　contemplated　by　its　authors。　　It　is　a　question　that　will　settle　itself；　without　serious　difficulty。　　The　equality　in　the　suffrage；　thus　guaranteed　to　the　negro　race；　alone　…　for　it　was　not　intended　to　include　other　colored　races　…　creates　a　new　phase　of　political　conditions　that　M。　De　Tocqueville　could　not　foresee。　　Yet；　in　his　commendation　of　the　local　town　and　county　governments；　he　applauds　and　sustains　that　elementary　feature　of　our　political　organization　which；　in　the　end；　will　render　harmless　this　wide　departure　from　the　original　plan　and　purpose　of　American　Democracy。　〃Local　Self…Government；〃　independent　of　general　control；　except　for　general　purposes；　is　the　root　and　origin　of　all　free　republican　government；　and　is　the　antagonist　of　all　great　political　combinations　that　threaten　the　rights　of　minorities。　　It　is　the　public　opinion　formed　in　the　independent　expressions　of　towns　and　other　small　civil　districts　that　is　the　real　conservatism　of　free　government。　　It　is　equally　the　enemy　of　that　dangerous　evil；　the　corruption　of　the　ballot…box；　from　which　it　is　now　apprehended　that　one　of　our　greatest　troubles　is　to　arise。

The　voter　is　selected；　under　our　laws；　because　he　has　certain