democracy in america-1-第14章

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ng　chapter　that　great　equality　existed　among　the　emigrants　who　settled　on　the　shores　of　New　England。　The　germ　of　aristocracy　was　never　planted　in　that　part　of　the　Union。　　The　only　influence　which　obtained　there　was　that　of　intellect；　the　people　were　used　to　reverence　certain　names　as　the　emblems　of　knowledge　and　virtue。　　Some　of　their　fellow…citizens　acquired　a　power　over　the　rest　which　might　truly　have　been　called　aristocratic；　if　it　had　been　capable　of　transmission　from　father　to　son。

This　was　the　state　of　things　to　the　east　of　the　Hudson：　to　the　south…west　of　that　river；　and　in　the　direction　of　the　Floridas；　the　case　was　different。　In　most　of　the　States　situated　to　the　south…　west　of　the　Hudson　some　great　English　proprietors　had　settled；　who　had　imported　with　them　aristocratic　principles　and　the　English　law　of　descent。　　I　have　explained　the　reasons　why　it　was　impossible　ever　to　establish　a　powerful　aristocracy　in　America；　these　reasons　existed　with　less　force　to　the　south…west　of　the　Hudson。　　In　the　South；　one　man；　aided　by　slaves；　could　cultivate　a　great　extent　of　country：　it　was　therefore　common　to　see　rich　landed　proprietors。　But　their　influence　was　not　altogether　aristocratic　as　that　term　is　understood　in　Europe；　since　they　possessed　no　privileges；　and　the　cultivation　of　their　estates　being　carried　on　by　slaves；　they　had　no　tenants　depending　on　them；　and　consequently　no　patronage。　　Still；　the　great　proprietors　south　of　the　Hudson　constituted　a　superior　class；　having　ideas　and　tastes　of　its　own；　and　forming　the　centre　of　political　action。　　This　kind　of　aristocracy　sympathized　with　the　body　of　the　people；　whose　passions　and　interests　it　easily　embraced；　but　it　was　too　weak　and　too　short…lived　to　excite　either　love　or　hatred　for　itself。　　This　was　the　class　which　headed　the　insurrection　in　the　South；　and　furnished　the　best　leaders　of　the　American　revolution。

At　the　period　of　which　we　are　now　speaking　society　was　shaken　to　its　centre：　the　people；　in　whose　name　the　struggle　had　taken　place；　conceived　the　desire　of　exercising　the　authority　which　it　had　acquired；　its　democratic　tendencies　were　awakened；　and　having　thrown　off　the　yoke　of　the　mother…country；　it　aspired　to　independence　of　every　kind。　　The　influence　of　individuals　gradually　ceased　to　be　felt；　and　custom　and　law　united　together　to　produce　the　same　result。

But　the　law　of　descent　was　the　last　step　to　equality。　　I　am　surprised　that　ancient　and　modern　jurists　have　not　attributed　to　this　law　a　greater　influence　on　human　affairs。　*a　It　is　true　that　these　laws　belong　to　civil　affairs；　but　they　ought　nevertheless　to　be　placed　at　the　head　of　all　political　institutions；　for；　whilst　political　laws　are　only　the　symbol　of　a　nation's　condition；　they　exercise　an　incredible　influence　upon　its　social　state。　　They　have；　moreover；　a　sure　and　uniform　manner　of　operating　upon　society；　affecting；　as　it　were；　generations　yet　unborn。

＇Footnote　a：　I　understand　by　the　law　of　descent　all　those　laws　whose　principal　object　is　to　regulate　the　distribution　of　property　after　the　death　of　its　owner。　　The　law　of　entail　is　of　this　number；　it　certainly　prevents　the　owner　from　disposing　of　his　possessions　before　his　death；　but　this　is　solely　with　the　view　of　preserving　them　entire　for　the　heir。　　The　principal　object；　therefore；　of　the　law　of　entail　is　to　regulate　the　descent　of　property　after　the　death　of　its　owner：　its　other　provisions　are　merely　means　to　this　end。＇

Through　their　means　man　acquires　a　kind　of　preternatural　power　over　the　future　lot　of　his　fellow…creatures。　　When　the　legislator　has　regulated　the　law　of　inheritance；　he　may　rest　from　his　labor。　　The　machine　once　put　in　motion　will　go　on　for　ages；　and　advance；　as　if　self…guided；　towards　a　given　point。　When　framed　in　a　particular　manner；　this　law　unites；　draws　together；　and　vests　property　and　power　in　a　few　hands：　its　tendency　is　clearly　aristocratic。　　On　opposite　principles　its　action　is　still　more　rapid；　it　divides；　distributes；　and　disperses　both　property　and　power。　　Alarmed　by　the　rapidity　of　its　progress；　those　who　despair　of　arresting　its　motion　endeavor　to　obstruct　it　by　difficulties　and　impediments；　they　vainly　seek　to　counteract　its　effect　by　contrary　efforts；　but　it　gradually　reduces　or　destroys　every　obstacle；　until　by　its　incessant　activity　the　bulwarks　of　the　influence　of　wealth　are　ground　down　to　the　fine　and　shifting　sand　which　is　the　basis　of　democracy。　　When　the　law　of　inheritance　permits；　still　more　when　it　decrees；　the　equal　division　of　a　father's　property　amongst　all　his　children；　its　effects　are　of　two　kinds：　it　is　important　to　distinguish　them　from　each　other；　although　they　tend　to　the　same　end。

In　virtue　of　the　law　of　partible　inheritance；　the　death　of　every　proprietor　brings　about　a　kind　of　revolution　in　property；　not　only　do　his　possessions　change　hands；　but　their　very　nature　is　altered；　since　they　are　parcelled　into　shares；　which　become　smaller　and　smaller　at　each　division。　This　is　the　direct　and；　as　it　were；　the　physical　effect　of　the　law。　　It　follows；　then；　that　in　countries　where　equality　of　inheritance　is　established　by　law；　property；　and　especially　landed　property；　must　have　a　tendency　to　perpetual　diminution。　　The　effects；　however；　of　such　legislation　would　only　be　perceptible　after　a　lapse　of　time；　if　the　law　was　abandoned　to　its　own　working；　for　supposing　the　family　to　consist　of　two　children　（and　in　a　country　people　as　France　is　the　average　number　is　not　above　three）；　these　children；　sharing　amongst　them　the　fortune　of　both　parents；　would　not　be　poorer　than　their　father　or　mother。

But　the　law　of　equal　division　exercises　its　influence　not　merely　upon　the　property　itself；　but　it　affects　the　minds　of　the　heirs；　and　brings　their　passions　into　play。　　These　indirect　consequences　tend　powerfully　to　the　destruction　of　large　fortunes；　and　especially　of　large　domains。　　Among　nations　whose　law　of　descent　is　founded　upon　the　right　of　primogeniture　landed　estates　often　pass　from　generation　to　generation　without　undergoing　division；　the　consequence　of　which　is　that　family　feeling　is　to　a　certain　degree　incorporated　with　the　estate。　　The　family　represents　the　estate；　the　estate　the　family；　whose　name；　together　with　its　origin；　its　glory；　its　power；　and　its　virtues；　is　thus　perpetuated　in　an　imperishable　memorial　of　the　past　and　a　sure　pledge　of　the　future。

When　the　equal　partition　of　property　is　established　by　law；　the　intimate　connection　is　destroyed　between　family　feeling　and　the　preservation　of　the　paternal　estate；　the　property　ceases　to　represent　the　family；　for　as　it　must　inevitably　be　divided　after　one　or　two　generations；　it　has　evidently　a　constant　tendency　to　diminish；　and　must　in　the　end　be　completely　dispersed。　The　sons　of　the　great　landed　proprietor；　if　they　are　few　in　number；　or　if　fortune　befriends　them；　may　indeed　entertain　the　hope　of　being　as　wealthy　as　their　father；　but　not　that　of　possessing　the　same　property　as　he　did；　the　riches　must　necessarily　be　composed　of　elements　different　from　his。

Now；　from　the　moment　that　you　divest　the　landowner　of　that　interest　in　the　preservation　of　his　estate　which　he　derives　from　association；　from　tradition；　and　from　family　pride；　you　may　be　certain　that　sooner　or　later　he　will　dispose　of　it；　for　there　is　a　strong　pecuniary　interest　in　favor　of　selling；　as　floating　capital　produces　higher　interest　than　real　property；　and　is　more　readily　available　to　gratify　the　passions　of　the　moment。

Great　landed　estates　which　have　once　been　divided　never　come　together　again；　for　the　small　proprietor　draws　from　his　land　a　better　revenue；　in　proportion；　than　the　large　owner　does　from　his；　and　of　course　he　sells　it　at　a　higher　rate。　*b　The　calculations　of　gain；　therefore；　which　decide　the　rich　man　to　sell　his　domain　will　still　more　powerfully　influence　him　against　buying　small　estates　to　unite　them　into　a　large　one。

＇Footnote　b：　I　do　not　mean　to　say　that　the　small　proprietor　cultivates　his　land　better；　but　he　cultivates　it　with　more　ardor　and　care；　so　that　he　makes　up　by　his　labor　for　his　want　of　skill。＇　

What　is　called　family　pride　is　often　founded　upon　an　illusion　of　self…love。　　A　man　wishes　to　perpetuate　and　immortalize　himself；　as　it　were；　in　his　great…grandchildren。　　Where　the　esprit　de　famille　ceases　to　act　individual　selfishness　comes　into　play。　　When　the　idea　of　family　becomes　vague；　indeterminate；　and　uncertain；　a　man　thinks　of　his　present　convenience；　he　provides　for　the　establishment　of　his　succeeding　generation；　and　no　more。　Either　a　man　gives　up　the　idea　of　perpetuating　his　family；　or　at　any　rate　he　seeks　to　accomplish　it　by　other　means　than　that　of　a　landed　estate。　　Thus　not　only　does　the　law　of　partible　inheritance　render　it　difficult　for　families　to　preserve　their　ancestral　domains　entire；　but　it　deprives　them　of　the　inclination　to　attempt　it；　and　compels　them　in　some　measure　to　co…operate　with　the　law　in　their　own　extinction。

The　law　of　equal　distribution　proceeds　by　two　methods：　by　acting　upon　things；　it　acts　upon　persons；　by　influencing　persons；　it　affects　things。　　By　these　means　the　law　succeeds　in　striking　at　the　root　of　landed　property；　and　dispersing　rapidly　both　families　and　fortunes。　*c

＇Footnote　c：　Land　being　the　most　stable　kind　of　property；　we　find；　from　time　to　time；　rich　individuals　who　are　disposed　to　make　great　sacrifices　in　order　to　obtain　it；　and　who　willingly　forfeit　a　considerable　part　of　their　income　to　make　sure　of　the　rest。　　But　these　are　accidental　cases。　　The　preference　for　landed　property　is　no　longer　found　habitually　in　any　class　but　among　the　poor。　The　small　landowner；　who　has　less　information；　less　imagination；　and　fewer　passions　than　the　great　one；　is　generally　occupied　with　the　desire　of　increasing　his　estate：　and　it　often　happens　that　by　inheritance；　by　marriage；　or　by　the　chances　of　trade；　he　is　gradually　furnished　with　the　means。　　Thus；　to　balance　the　tendency　which　leads　men　to　divide　their　estates；　there　exists　another；　which　incites　them　to　add　to　them。　　This　tendency；　which　is　sufficient　to　prevent　estates　from　being　divided　ad　infinitum；　is　not　strong　enough　to　create　great　territorial　possessions；　certainly　not　to　keep　them　up　in　the　same　family。＇

Most　certainly　it　is　not　for　us　Frenchmen　of　the　nineteenth　century；　who　daily　witness　the　political　and　social　changes　which　the　law　of　partition　is　bringing　to　pass；　to　question　its　influence。　　It　is　perpetually　conspicuous　in　our　country；　overthrowing　the　walls　of　our　dwellings　and　removing　the　landmarks　of　our　fields。　　But　although　it　has　produced　great　effects　in　France；　much　still　remains　for　it　to　do。　　Our　recollections；　opinions；　and　habits　present　powerful　obstacles　to　its　progress。　

In　the　United　States　it　has　nearly　completed　its　work　of　destruction；　and　there　we　can　best　study　its　results。　　The　English　laws　concerning　the　transmission　of　property　were　abolished　in　almost　all　the　States　at　the　time　of　the　Revolution。　　The　law　of　entail　was　so　modified　as　not　to　interrupt　the　free　circulation　of　property。　*d　The　first　generation　having　passed　away；　estates　began　to　be　parcelled　out；　and　the　change　became　more　and　more　rapid　with　the　progress　of　time。　　At　this　moment；　after　a　lapse　of　a　little　more　than　sixty　years；　the　aspect　of　society　is　totally　alter