democracy in america-1-第2章

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The　voter　is　selected；　under　our　laws；　because　he　has　certain　physical　qualifications　…　age　and　sex。　　His　disqualifications；　when　any　are　imposed；　relate　to　his　education　or　property；　and　to　the　fact　that　he　has　not　been　convicted　of　crime。　　Of　all　men　he　should　be　most　directly　amenable　to　public　opinion。

The　test　of　moral　character　and　devotion　to　the　duties　of　good　citizenship　are　ignored　in　the　laws；　because　the　courts　can　seldom　deal　with　such　questions　in　a　uniform　and　satisfactory　way；　under　rules　that　apply　alike　to　all。　　Thus　the　voter；　selected　by　law　to　represent　himself　and　four　other　non…voting　citizens；　is　often　a　person　who　is　unfit　for　any　public　duty　or　trust。　　In　a　town　government；　having　a　small　area　of　jurisdiction；　where　the　voice　of　the　majority　of　qualified　voters　is　conclusive；　the　fitness　of　the　person　who　is　to　exercise　that　high　representative　privilege　can　be　determined　by　his　neighbors　and　acquaintances；　and；　in　the　great　majority　of　cases；　it　will　be　decided　honestly　and　for　the　good　of　the　country。　　In　such　meetings；　there　is　always　a　spirit　of　loyalty　to　the　State；　because　that　is　loyalty　to　the　people；　and　a　reverence　for　God　that　gives　weight　to　the　duties　and　responsibilities　of　citizenship。

M。　De　Tocqueville　found　in　these　minor　local　jurisdictions　the　theoretical　conservatism　which；　in　the　aggregate；　is　the　safest　reliance　of　the　State。　　So　we　have　found　them；　in　practice；　the　true　protectors　of　the　purity　of　the　ballot；　without　which　all　free　government　will　degenerate　into　absolutism。

In　the　future　of　the　Republic；　we　must　encounter　many　difficult　and　dangerous　situations；　but　the　principles　established　in　the　Constitution　and　the　check　upon　hasty　or　inconsiderate　legislation；　and　upon　executive　action；　and　the　supreme　arbitrament　of　the　courts；　will　be　found　sufficient　for　the　safety　of　personal　rights；　and　for　the　safety　of　the　government；　and　the　prophetic　outlook　of　M。　De　Tocqueville　will　be　fully　realized　through　the　influence　of　Democracy　in　America。　　Each　succeeding　generation　of　Americans　will　find　in　the　pure　and　impartial　reflections　of　De　Tocqueville　a　new　source　of　pride　in　our　institutions　of　government；　and　sound　reasons　for　patriotic　effort　to　preserve　them　and　to　inculcate　their　teachings。　　They　have　mastered　the　power　of　monarchical　rule　in　the　American　Hemisphere；　freeing　religion　from　all　shackles；　and　will　spread；　by　a　quiet　but　resistless　influence；　through　the　islands　of　the　seas　to　other　lands；　where　the　appeals　of　De　Tocqueville　for　human　rights　and　liberties　have　already　inspired　the　souls　of　the　people。


Hon。　John　T。　Morgan

Special　Introduction　By　Hon。　John　J。　Ingalls

Nearly　two…thirds　of　a　century　has　elapsed　since　the　appearance　of　〃Democracy　in　America；〃　by　Alexis　Charles　Henri　Clerel　de　Tocqueville；　a　French　nobleman；　born　at　Paris；　July　29；　1805。

Bred　to　the　law；　he　exhibited　an　early　predilection　for　philosophy　and　political　economy；　and　at　twenty…two　was　appointed　judge…auditor　at　the　tribunal　of　Versailles。

In　1831；　commissioned　ostensibly　to　investigate　the　penitentiary　system　of　the　United　States；　he　visited　this　country；　with　his　friend；　Gustave　de　Beaumont；　travelling　extensively　through　those　parts　of　the　Republic　then　subdued　to　settlement；　studying　the　methods　of　local；　State；　and　national　administration；　and　observing　the　manners　and　habits；　the　daily　life；　the　business；　the　industries　and　occupations　of　the　people。

〃Democracy　in　America；〃　the　first　of　four　volumes　upon　〃American　Institutions　and　their　Influence；〃　was　published　in　1835。　　It　was　received　at　once　by　the　scholars　and　thinkers　of　Europe　as　a　profound；　impartial；　and　entertaining　exposition　of　the　principles　of　popular；　representative　self…government。

Napoleon；　〃The　mighty　somnambulist　of　a　vanished　dream；〃　had　abolished　feudalism　and　absolutism；　made　monarchs　and　dynasties　obsolete；　and　substituted　for　the　divine　right　of　kings　the　sovereignty　of　the　people。

Although　by　birth　and　sympathies　an　aristocrat；　M。　de　Tocqueville　saw　that　the　reign　of　tradition　and　privilege　at　last　was　ended。　　He　perceived　that　civilization；　after　many　bloody　centuries；　had　entered　a　new　epoch。　　He　beheld；　and　deplored；　the　excesses　that　had　attended　the　genesis　of　the　democratic　spirit　in　France；　and　while　he　loved　liberty；　he　detested　the　crimes　that　had　been　committed　in　its　name。　　Belonging　neither　to　the　class　which　regarded　the　social　revolution　as　an　innovation　to　be　resisted；　nor　to　that　which　considered　political　equality　the　universal　panacea　for　the　evils　of　humanity；　he　resolved　by　personal　observation　of　the　results　of　democracy　in　the　New　World　to　ascertain　its　natural　consequences；　and　to　learn　what　the　nations　of　Europe　had　to　hope　or　fear　from　its　final　supremacy。

That　a　youth　of　twenty…six　should　entertain　a　design　so　broad　and　bold　implies　singular　intellectual　intrepidity。　　He　had　neither　model　nor　precedent。　　The　vastness　and　novelty　of　the　undertaking　increase　admiration　for　the　remarkable　ability　with　which　the　task　was　performed。

Were　literary　excellence　the　sole　claim　of　〃Democracy　in　America〃　to　distinction；　the　splendor　of　its　composition　alone　would　entitle　it　to　high　place　among　the　masterpieces　of　the　century。　　The　first　chapter；　upon　the　exterior　form　of　North　America；　as　the　theatre　upon　which　the　great　drama　is　to　be　enacted；　for　graphic　and　picturesque　description　of　the　physical　characteristics　of　the　continent　is　not　surpassed　in　literature：　nor　is　there　any　subdivision　of　the　work　in　which　the　severest　philosophy　is　not　invested　with　the　grace　of　poetry；　and　the　driest　statistics　with　the　charm　of　romance。　Western　emigration　seemed　commonplace　and　prosaic　till　M。　de　Tocqueville　said；　〃This　gradual　and　continuous　progress　of　the　European　race　toward　the　Rocky　Mountains　has　the　solemnity　of　a　providential　event；　it　is　like　a　deluge　of　men　rising　unabatedly；　and　daily　driven　onward　by　the　hand　of　God！〃

The　mind　of　M。　de　Tocqueville　had　the　candor　of　the　photographic　camera。　It　recorded　impressions　with　the　impartiality　of　nature。　　The　image　was　sometimes　distorted；　and　the　perspective　was　not　always　true；　but　he　was　neither　a　panegyrist；　nor　an　advocate；　nor　a　critic。　　He　observed　American　phenomena　as　illustrations；　not　as　proof　nor　arguments；　and　although　it　is　apparent　that　the　tendency　of　his　mind　was　not　wholly　favorable　to　the　democratic　principle；　yet　those　who　dissent　from　his　conclusions　must　commend　the　ability　and　courage　with　which　they　are　expressed。

Though　not　originally　written　for　Americans；　〃Democracy　in　America〃　must　always　remain　a　work　of　engrossing　and　constantly　increasing　interest　to　citizens　of　the　United　States　as　the　first　philosophic　and　comprehensive　view　of　our　society；　institutions；　and　destiny。　　No　one　can　rise　even　from　the　most　cursory　perusal　without　clearer　insight　and　more　patriotic　appreciation　of　the　blessings　of　liberty　protected　by　law；　nor　without　encouragement　for　the　stability　and　perpetuity　of　the　Republic。　　The　causes　which　appeared　to　M。　de　Tocqueville　to　menace　both；　have　gone。　　The　despotism　of　public　opinion；　the　tyranny　of　majorities；　the　absence　of　intellectual　freedom　which　seemed　to　him　to　degrade　administration　and　bring　statesmanship；　learning；　and　literature　to　the　level　of　the　lowest；　are　no　longer　considered。　　The　violence　of　party　spirit　has　been　mitigated；　and　the　judgment　of　the　wise　is　not　subordinated　to　the　prejudices　of　the　ignorant。

Other　dangers　have　come。　　Equality　of　conditions　no　longer　exists。　Prophets　of　evil　predict　the　downfall　of　democracy；　but　the　student　of　M。　de　Tocqueville　will　find　consolation　and　encouragement　in　the　reflection　that　the　same　spirit　which　has　vanquished　the　perils　of　the　past；　which　he　foresaw；　will　be　equally　prepared　for　the　responsibilities　of　the　present　and　the　future。

The　last　of　the　four　volumes　of　M。　de　Tocqueville's　work　upon　American　institutions　appeared　in　1840。

In　1838　he　was　chosen　member　of　the　Academy　of　Moral　and　Political　Sciences。　　In　1839　he　was　elected　to　the　Chamber　of　Deputies。　　He　became　a　member　of　the　French　Academy　in　1841。　　In　1848　he　was　in　the　Assembly；　and　from　June　2nd　to　October　31st　he　was　Minister　of　Foreign　Affairs。　　The　coup　d'etat　of　December　2；　1851　drove　him　from　the　public　service。　　In　1856　he　published　〃The　Old　Regime　and　the　Revolution。〃　He　died　at　Cannes；　April　15；　1859；　at　the　age　of　fifty…four。

Hon。　John　J。　Ingalls


Introductory　Chapter

Amongst　the　novel　objects　that　attracted　my　attention　during　my　stay　in　the　United　States；　nothing　struck　me　more　forcibly　than　the　general　equality　of　conditions。　　I　readily　discovered　the　prodigious　influence　which　this　primary　fact　exercises　on　the　whole　course　of　society；　by　giving　a　certain　direction　to　public　opinion；　and　a　certain　tenor　to　the　laws；　by　imparting　new　maxims　to　the　governing　powers；　and　peculiar　habits　to　the　governed。　　I　speedily　perceived　that　the　influence　of　this　fact　extends　far　beyond　the　political　character　and　the　laws　of　the　country；　and　that　it　has　no　less　empire　over　civil　society　than　over　the　Government；　it　creates　opinions；　engenders　sentiments；　suggests　the　ordinary　practices　of　life；　and　modifies　whatever　it　does　not　produce。　　The　more　I　advanced　in　the　study　of　American　society；　the　more　I　perceived　that　the　equality　of　conditions　is　the　fundamental　fact　from　which　all　others　seem　to　be　derived；　and　the　central　point　at　which　all　my　observations　constantly　terminated。

I　then　turned　my　thoughts　to　our　own　hemisphere；　where　I　imagined　that　I　discerned　something　analogous　to　the　spectacle　which　the　New　World　presented　to　me。　　I　observed　that　the　equality　of　conditions　is　daily　progressing　towards　those　extreme　limits　which　it　seems　to　have　reached　in　the　United　States；　and　that　the　democracy　which　governs　the　American　communities　appears　to　be　rapidly　rising　into　power　in　Europe。　　I　hence　conceived　the　idea　of　the　book　which　is　now　before　the　reader。

It　is　evident　to　all　alike　that　a　great　democratic　revolution　is　going　on　amongst　us；　but　there　are　two　opinions　as　to　its　nature　and　consequences。　To　some　it　appears　to　be　a　novel　accident；　which　as　such　may　still　be　checked；　to　others　it　seems　irresistible；　because　it　is　the　most　uniform；　the　most　ancient；　and　the　most　permanent　tendency　which　is　to　be　found　in　history。　　Let　us　recollect　the　situation　of　France　seven　hundred　years　ago；　when　the　territory　was　divided　amongst　a　small　number　of　families；　who　were　the　owners　of　the　soil　and　the　rulers　of　the　inhabitants；　the　right　of　governing　descended　with　the　family　inheritance　from　generation　to　generation；　force　was　the　only　means　by　which　man　could　act　on　man；　and　landed　property　was　the　sole　source　of　power。　　Soon；　however；　the　political　power　of　the　clergy　was　founded；　and　began　to　exert　itself：　the　clergy　opened　its　ranks　to　all　classes；　to　the　poor　and　the　rich；　the　villein　and　the　lord；　equality　penetrated　into　the　Government　through　the　Church；　and　the　being　who　as　a　serf　must　have　vegetated　in　perpetual　bondage　took　his　place　as　a　priest　in　the　midst　of　nobles；　and　not　infrequently　above　the　heads　of　kings。

The　different　relations　of　men　became　more　complicated　and　more　numerous　as　society　gradually　beca