democracy in america-1-第20章

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　in　the　county　town；　in　Massachusetts　it　is　empowered　to　enforce　the　obedience　of　the　greater　number　*s　of　public　officers。　*t　It　must　be　observed；　that　in　the　State　of　Massachusetts　the　Court　of　Sessions　is　at　the　same　time　an　administrative　body；　properly　so　called；　and　a　political　tribunal。　　It　has　been　asserted　that　the　county　is　a　purely　administrative　division。　　The　Court　of　Sessions　presides　over　that　small　number　of　affairs　which；　as　they　concern　several　townships；　or　all　the　townships　of　the　county　in　common；　cannot　be　entrusted　to　any　one　of　them　in　particular。　*u　In　all　that　concerns　county　business　the　duties　of　the　Court　of　Sessions　are　purely　administrative；　and　if　in　its　investigations　it　occasionally　borrows　the　forms　of　judicial　procedure；　it　is　only　with　a　view　to　its　own　information；　*v　or　as　a　guarantee　to　the　community　over　which　it　presides。　　But　when　the　administration　of　the　township　is　brought　before　it；　it　always　acts　as　a　judicial　body；　and　in　some　few　cases　as　an　official　assembly。

＇Footnote　p：　We　shall　hereafter　learn　what　a　Governor　is：　I　shall　content　myself　with　remarking　in　this　place　that　he　represents　the　executive　power　of　the　whole　State。＇

＇Footnote　q：　See　the　Constitution　of　Massachusetts；　chap。　II。　sect。　1。　Section　9；　chap。　III。　Section　3。＇

＇Footnote　r：　Thus；　for　example；　a　stranger　arrives　in　a　township　from　a　country　where　a　contagious　disease　prevails；　and　he　falls　ill。　　Two　justices　of　the　peace　can；　with　the　assent　of　the　selectmen；　order　the　sheriff　of　the　county　to　remove　and　take　care　of　him。　…　Act　of　June　22；　1797；　vol。　i。　p。　540。

In　general　the　justices　interfere　in　all　the　important　acts　of　the　administration；　and　give　them　a　semi…judicial　character。＇　　＇Footnote　s：　I　say　the　greater　number；　because　certain　administrative　misdemeanors　are　brought　before　ordinary　tribunals。　　If；　for　instance；　a　township　refuses　to　make　the　necessary　expenditure　for　its　schools　or　to　name　a　school…committee；　it　is　liable　to　a　heavy　fine。　　But　this　penalty　is　pronounced　by　the　Supreme　Judicial　Court　or　the　Court　of　Common　Pleas。　　See　Act　of　March　10；　1827；　Laws　of　Massachusetts；　vol。　iii。　p。　190。　　Or　when　a　township　neglects　to　provide　the　necessary　war…stores。　…　Act　of　February　21；　1822：　Id。；　vol。　ii。　p。　570。＇

＇Footnote　t：　In　their　individual　capacity　the　justices　of　the　peace　take　a　part　in　the　business　of　the　counties　and　townships。＇　　＇Footnote　u：　These　affairs　may　be　brought　under　the　following　heads：　…　1。　The　erection　of　prisons　and　courts　of　justice。　　2。　The　county　budget；　which　is　afterwards　voted　by　the　State。　　3。　The　distribution　of　the　taxes　so　voted。　4。　Grants　of　certain　patents。　　5。　The　laying　down　and　repairs　of　the　country　roads。＇

＇Footnote　v：　Thus；　when　a　road　is　under　consideration；　almost　all　difficulties　are　disposed　of　by　the　aid　of　the　jury。＇

The　first　difficulty　is　to　procure　the　obedience　of　an　authority　as　entirely　independent　of　the　general　laws　of　the　State　as　the　township　is。　We　have　stated　that　assessors　are　annually　named　by　the　town…meetings　to　levy　the　taxes。　　If　a　township　attempts　to　evade　the　payment　of　the　taxes　by　neglecting　to　name　its　assessors；　the　Court　of　Sessions　condemns　it　to　a　heavy　penalty。　*w　The　fine　is　levied　on　each　of　the　inhabitants；　and　the　sheriff　of　the　county；　who　is　the　officer　of　justice；　executes　the　mandate。　Thus　it　is　that　in　the　United　States　the　authority　of　the　Government　is　mysteriously　concealed　under　the　forms　of　a　judicial　sentence；　and　its　influence　is　at　the　same　time　fortified　by　that　irresistible　power　with　which　men　have　invested　the　formalities　of　law。

＇Footnote　w：　See　Act　of　February　20；　1786；　Laws　of　Massachusetts；　vol。　i。　p。　217。＇

These　proceedings　are　easy　to　follow　and　to　understand。　　The　demands　made　upon　a　township　are　in　general　plain　and　accurately　defined；　they　consist　in　a　simple　fact　without　any　complication；　or　in　a　principle　without　its　application　in　detail。　*x　But　the　difficulty　increases　when　it　is　not　the　obedience　of　the　township；　but　that　of　the　town　officers　which　is　to　be　enforced。　　All　the　reprehensible　actions　of　which　a　public　functionary　may　be　guilty　are　reducible　to　the　following　heads：

＇Footnote　x：　There　is　an　indirect　method　of　enforcing　the　obedience　of　a　township。　　Suppose　that　the　funds　which　the　law　demands　for　the　maintenance　of　the　roads　have　not　been　voted；　the　town　surveyor　is　then　authorized；　ex　officio；　to　levy　the　supplies。　　As　he　is　personally　responsible　to　private　individuals　for　the　state　of　the　roads；　and　indictable　before　the　Court　of　Sessions；　he　is　sure　to　employ　the　extraordinary　right　which　the　law　gives　him　against　the　township。　　Thus　by　threatening　the　officer　the　Court　of　Sessions　exacts　compliance　from　the　town。　　See　Act　of　March　5；　1787；　Id。；　vol。　i。　p。　305。＇

He　may　execute　the　law　without　energy　or　zeal；

He　may　neglect　to　execute　the　law；

He　may　do　what　the　law　enjoins　him　not　to　do。

The　last　two　violations　of　duty　can　alone　come　under　the　cognizance　of　a　tribunal；　a　positive　and　appreciable　fact　is　the　indispensable　foundation　of　an　action　at　law。　　Thus；　if　the　selectmen　omit　to　fulfil　the　legal　formalities　usual　at　town　elections；　they　may　be　condemned　to　pay　a　fine；　*y　but　when　the　public　officer　performs　his　duty　without　ability；　and　when　he　obeys　the　letter　of　the　law　without　zeal　or　energy；　he　is　at　least　beyond　the　reach　of　judicial　interference。　　The　Court　of　Sessions；　even　when　it　is　invested　with　its　official　powers；　is　in　this　case　unable　to　compel　him　to　a　more　satisfactory　obedience。　　The　fear　of　removal　is　the　only　check　to　these　quasi…offences；　and　as　the　Court　of　Sessions　does　not　originate　the　town　authorities；　it　cannot　remove　functionaries　whom　it　does　not　appoint。　Moreover；　a　perpetual　investigation　would　be　necessary　to　convict　the　officer　of　negligence　or　lukewarmness；　and　the　Court　of　Sessions　sits　but　twice　a　year　and　then　only　judges　such　offences　as　are　brought　before　its　notice。　The　only　security　of　that　active　and　enlightened　obedience　which　a　court　of　justice　cannot　impose　upon　public　officers　lies　in　the　possibility　of　their　arbitrary　removal。　　In　France　this　security　is　sought　for　in　powers　exercised　by　the　heads　of　the　administration；　in　America　it　is　sought　for　in　the　principle　of　election。

＇Footnote　y：　Laws　of　Massachusetts；　vol。　ii。　p。　45。＇

Thus；　to　recapitulate　in　a　few　words　what　I　have　been　showing：　If　a　public　officer　in　New　England　commits　a　crime　in　the　exercise　of　his　functions；　the　ordinary　courts　of　justice　are　always　called　upon　to　pass　sentence　upon　him。　　If　he　commits　a　fault　in　his　official　capacity；　a　purely　administrative　tribunal　is　empowered　to　punish　him；　and；　if　the　affair　is　important　or　urgent；　the　judge　supplies　the　omission　of　the　functionary。　*z　Lastly；　if　the　same　individual　is　guilty　of　one　of　those　intangible　offences　of　which　human　justice　has　no　cognizance；　he　annually　appears　before　a　tribunal　from　which　there　is　no　appeal；　which　can　at　once　reduce　him　to　insignificance　and　deprive　him　of　his　charge。　　This　system　undoubtedly　possesses　great　advantages；　but　its　execution　is　attended　with　a　practical　difficulty　which　it　is　important　to　point　out。

＇Footnote　z：　If；　for　instance；　a　township　persists　in　refusing　to　name　its　assessors；　the　Court　of　Sessions　nominates　them；　and　the　magistrates　thus　appointed　are　invested　with　the　same　authority　as　elected　officers。　　See　the　Act　quoted　above；　February　20；　1787。＇　

I　have　already　observed　that　the　administrative　tribunal；　which　is　called　the　Court　of　Sessions；　has　no　right　of　inspection　over　the　town　officers。　　It　can　only　interfere　when　the　conduct　of　a　magistrate　is　specially　brought　under　its　notice；　and　this　is　the　delicate　part　of　the　system。　　The　Americans　of　New　England　are　unacquainted　with　the　office　of　public　prosecutor　in　the　Court　of　Sessions；　*a　and　it　may　readily　be　perceived　that　it　could　not　have　been　established　without　difficulty。　　If　an　accusing　magistrate　had　merely　been　appointed　in　the　chief　town　of　each　county；　and　if　he　had　been　unassisted　by　agents　in　the　townships；　he　would　not　have　been　better　acquainted　with　what　was　going　on　in　the　county　than　the　members　of　the　Court　of　Sessions。　　But　to　appoint　agents　in　each　township　would　have　been　to　centre　in　his　person　the　most　formidable　of　powers；　that　of　a　judicial　administration。　　Moreover；　laws　are　the　children　of　habit；　and　nothing　of　the　kind　exists　in　the　legislation　of　England。　　The　Americans　have　therefore　divided　the　offices　of　inspection　and　of　prosecution；　as　well　as　all　the　other　functions　of　the　administration。　Grand　jurors　are　bound　by　the　law　to　apprise　the　court　to　which　they　belong　of　all　the　misdemeanors　which　may　have　been　committed　in　their　county。　*b　There　are　certain　great　offences　which　are　officially　prosecuted　by　the　States；　*c　but　more　frequently　the　task　of　punishing　delinquents　devolves　upon　the　fiscal　officer；　whose　province　it　is　to　receive　the　fine：　thus　the　treasurer　of　the　township　is　charged　with　the　prosecution　of　such　administrative　offences　as　fall　under　his　notice。　But　a　more　special　appeal　is　made　by　American　legislation　to　the　private　interest　of　the　citizen；　*d　and　this　great　principle　is　constantly　to　be　met　with　in　studying　the　laws　of　the　United　States。　　American　legislators　are　more　apt　to　give　men　credit　for　intelligence　than　for　honesty；　and　they　rely　not　a　little　on　personal　cupidity　for　the　execution　of　the　laws。　　When　an　individual　is　really　and　sensibly　injured　by　an　administrative　abuse；　it　is　natural　that　his　personal　interest　should　induce　him　to　prosecute。　　But　if　a　legal　formality　be　required；　which；　however　advantageous　to　the　community；　is　of　small　importance　to　individuals；　plaintiffs　may　be　less　easily　found；　and　thus；　by　a　tacit　agreement；　the　laws　may　fall　into　disuse。　　Reduced　by　their　system　to　this　extremity；　the　Americans　are　obliged　to　encourage　informers　by　bestowing　on　them　a　portion　of　the　penalty　in　certain　cases；　*e　and　to　insure　the　execution　of　the　laws　by　the　dangerous　expedient　of　degrading　the　morals　of　the　people。　　The　only　administrative　authority　above　the　county　magistrates　is；　properly　speaking；　that　of　the　Government。

＇Footnote　a：　I　say　the　Court　of　Sessions；　because　in　common　courts　there　is　a　magistrate　who　exercises　some　of　the　functions　of　a　public　prosecutor。＇

＇Footnote　b：　The　grand…jurors　are；　for　instance；　bound　to　inform　the　court　of　the　bad　state　of　the　roads。　…　Laws　of　Massachusetts；　vol。　i。　p。　308。＇

＇Footnote　c：　If；　for　instance；　the　treasurer　of　the　county　holds　back　his　accounts。　…　Laws　of　Massachusetts；　vol。　i。　p。　406。＇　　＇Footnote　d：　Thus；　if　a　private　individual　breaks　down　or　is　wounded　in　consequence　of　the　badness　of　a　road；　he　can　sue　the　township　or　the　county　for　damages　at　the　sessions。　…　Laws　of　Massachusetts；　vol。　i。　p。　309。＇

＇Footnote　e：　In　cases　of　invasion　or　insurrection；　if　the　town…　officers　neglect　to　furnish　the　necessary　stores　and　ammunition　for　the　militia；　the　township　may　be　condemned　to　a　fine　of　from　200　to　500。　　It　may　readily　be　imagined　that　in　such　a　case　it　might　happen　that　no　one　cared　to　prosecute；　hence　the　law　adds　that　all　the　citizens　may　indict　offences　of　this　kind；　and　that　half　of　the　fine　shall　belong　to　the　plain