democracy in america-1-第21章

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l　the　citizens　may　indict　offences　of　this　kind；　and　that　half　of　the　fine　shall　belong　to　the　plaintiff。　　See　Act　of　March　6；　1810；　vol。　ii。　p。　236。　　The　same　clause　is　frequently　to　be　met　with　in　the　law　of　Massachusetts。　　Not　only　are　private　individuals　thus　incited　to　prosecute　the　public　officers；　but　the　public　officers　are　encouraged　in　the　same　manner　to　bring　the　disobedience　of　private　individuals　to　justice。　　If　a　citizen　refuses　to　perform　the　work　which　has　been　assigned　to　him　upon　a　road；　the　road　surveyor　may　prosecute　him；　and　he　receives　half　the　penalty　for　himself。　　See　the　Laws　above　quoted；　vol。　i。　p。　308。＇

General　Remarks　On　The　Administration　Of　The　United　States　　Differences　of　the　States　of　the　Union　in　their　system　of　administration　…Activity　and　perfection　of　the　local　authorities　decrease　towards　the　South　…Power　of　the　magistrate　increases；　that　of　the　elector　diminishes　…Administration　passes　from　the　township　to　the　county　…　States　of　New　York；　Ohio；　Pennsylvania　…　Principles　of　administration　applicable　to　the　whole　Union　…　Election　of　public　officers；　and　inalienability　of　their　functions　…Absence　of　gradation　of　ranks　…　Introduction　of　judicial　resources　into　the　administration。


I　have　already　premised　that；　after　having　examined　the　constitution　of　the　township　and　the　county　of　New　England　in　detail；　I　should　take　a　general　view　of　the　remainder　of　the　Union。　　Townships　and　a　local　activity　exist　in　every　State；　but　in　no　part　of　the　confederation　is　a　township　to　be　met　with　precisely　similar　to　those　of　New　England。　　The　more　we　descend　towards　the　South；　the　less　active　does　the　business　of　the　township　or　parish　become；　the　number　of　magistrates；　of　functions；　and　of　rights　decreases；　the　population　exercises　a　less　immediate　influence　on　affairs；　town　meetings　are　less　frequent；　and　the　subjects　of　debate　less　numerous。　　The　power　of　the　elected　magistrate　is　augmented　and　that　of　the　elector　diminished；　whilst　the　public　spirit　of　the　local　communities　is　less　awakened　and　less　influential。　*f　These　differences　may　be　perceived　to　a　certain　extent　in　the　State　of　New　York；　they　are　very　sensible　in　Pennsylvania；　but　they　become　less　striking　as　we　advance　to　the　northwest。　　The　majority　of　the　emigrants　who　settle　in　the　northwestern　States　are　natives　of　New　England；　and　they　carry　the　habits　of　their　mother　country　with　them　into　that　which　they　adopt。　　A　township　in　Ohio　is　by　no　means　dissimilar　from　a　township　in　Massachusetts。

＇Footnote　f：　For　details　see　the　Revised　Statutes　of　the　State　of　New　York；　part　i。　chap。　xi。　vol。　i。　pp。　336…364；　entitled；　〃Of　the　Powers；　Duties；　and　Privileges　of　Towns。〃

See　in　the　Digest　of　the　Laws　of　Pennsylvania；　the　words　Assessors；　Collector；　Constables；　Overseer　of　the　Poor；　Supervisors　of　Highways；　and　in　the　Acts　of　a　general　nature　of　the　State　of　Ohio；　the　Act　of　February　25；　1834；　relating　to　townships；　p。　412；　besides　the　peculiar　dispositions　relating　to　divers　town…officers；　such　as　Township's　Clerk；　Trustees；　Overseers　of　the　Poor；　Fence　Viewers；　Appraisers　of　Property；　Township's　Treasurer；　Constables；　Supervisors　of　Highways。＇

We　have　seen　that　in　Massachusetts　the　mainspring　of　public　administration　lies　in　the　township。　　It　forms　the　common　centre　of　the　interests　and　affections　of　the　citizens。　　But　this　ceases　to　be　the　case　as　we　descend　to　States　in　which　knowledge　is　less　generally　diffused；　and　where　the　township　consequently　offers　fewer　guarantees　of　a　wise　and　active　administration。　　As　we　leave　New　England；　therefore；　we　find　that　the　importance　of　the　town　is　gradually　transferred　to　the　county；　which　becomes　the　centre　of　administration；　and　the　intermediate　power　between　the　Government　and　the　citizen。　　In　Massachusetts　the　business　of　the　county　is　conducted　by　the　Court　of　Sessions；　which　is　composed　of　a　quorum　named　by　the　Governor　and　his　council；　but　the　county　has　no　representative　assembly；　and　its　expenditure　is　voted　by　the　national　legislature。　　In　the　great　State　of　New　York；　on　the　contrary；　and　in　those　of　Ohio　and　Pennsylvania；　the　inhabitants　of　each　county　choose　a　certain　number　of　representatives；　who　constitute　the　assembly　of　the　county。　*g　The　county　assembly　has　the　right　of　taxing　the　inhabitants　to　a　certain　extent；　and　in　this　respect　it　enjoys　the　privileges　of　a　real　legislative　body：　at　the　same　time　it　exercises　an　executive　power　in　the　county；　frequently　directs　the　administration　of　the　townships；　and　restricts　their　authority　within　much　narrower　bounds　than　in　Massachusetts。

＇Footnote　g：　See　the　Revised　Statutes　of　the　State　of　New　York；　part　i。　chap。　xi。　vol。　i。　p。　340。　　Id。　chap。　xii。　p。　366；　also　in　the　Acts　of　the　State　of　Ohio；　an　act　relating　to　county　commissioners；　February　25；　1824；　p。　263。　See　the　Digest　of　the　Laws　of　Pennsylvania；　at　the　words　County…rates　and　Levies；　p。　170。　　In　the　State　of　New　York　each　township　elects　a　representative；　who　has　a　share　in　the　administration　of　the　county　as　well　as　in　that　of　the　township。＇

Such　are　the　principal　differences　which　the　systems　of　county　and　town　administration　present　in　the　Federal　States。　　Were　it　my　intention　to　examine　the　provisions　of　American　law　minutely；　I　should　have　to　point　out　still　further　differences　in　the　executive　details　of　the　several　communities。　　But　what　I　have　already　said　may　suffice　to　show　the　general　principles　on　which　the　administration　of　the　United　States　rests。　　These　principles　are　differently　applied；　their　consequences　are　more　or　less　numerous　in　various　localities；　but　they　are　always　substantially　the　same。　The　laws　differ；　and　their　outward　features　change；　but　their　character　does　not　vary。　　If　the　township　and　the　county　are　not　everywhere　constituted　in　the　same　manner；　it　is　at　least　true　that　in　the　United　States　the　county　and　the　township　are　always　based　upon　the　same　principle；　namely；　that　everyone　is　the　best　judge　of　what　concerns　himself　alone；　and　the　most　proper　person　to　supply　his　private　wants。　　The　township　and　the　county　are　therefore　bound　to　take　care　of　their　special　interests：　the　State　governs；　but　it　does　not　interfere　with　their　administration。　　Exceptions　to　this　rule　may　be　met　with；　but　not　a　contrary　principle。

The　first　consequence　of　this　doctrine　has　been　to　cause　all　the　magistrates　to　be　chosen　either　by　or　at　least　from　amongst　the　citizens。　As　the　officers　are　everywhere　elected　or　appointed　for　a　certain　period；　it　has　been　impossible　to　establish　the　rules　of　a　dependent　series　of　authorities；　there　are　almost　as　many　independent　functionaries　as　there　are　functions；　and　the　executive　power　is　disseminated　in　a　multitude　of　hands。　Hence　arose　the　indispensable　necessity　of　introducing　the　control　of　the　courts　of　justice　over　the　administration；　and　the　system　of　pecuniary　penalties；　by　which　the　secondary　bodies　and　their　representatives　are　constrained　to　obey　the　laws。　This　system　obtains　from　one　end　of　the　Union　to　the　other。　　The　power　of　punishing　the　misconduct　of　public　officers；　or　of　performing　the　part　of　the　executive　in　urgent　cases；　has　not；　however；　been　bestowed　on　the　same　judges　in　all　the　States。　　The　Anglo…Americans　derived　the　institution　of　justices　of　the　peace　from　a　common　source；　but　although　it　exists　in　all　the　States；　it　is　not　always　turned　to　the　same　use。　　The　justices　of　the　peace　everywhere　participate　in　the　administration　of　the　townships　and　the　counties；　*h　either　as　public　officers　or　as　the　judges　of　public　misdemeanors；　but　in　most　of　the　States　the　more　important　classes　of　public　offences　come　under　the　cognizance　of　the　ordinary　tribunals。

＇Footnote　h：　In　some　of　the　Southern　States　the　county　courts　are　charged　with　all　the　details　of　the　administration。　　See　the　Statutes　of　the　State　of　Tennessee；　arts。　　Judiciary；　Taxes；　etc。＇　

The　election　of　public　officers；　or　the　inalienability　of　their　functions；　the　absence　of　a　gradation　of　powers；　and　the　introduction　of　a　judicial　control　over　the　secondary　branches　of　the　administration；　are　the　universal　characteristics　of　the　American　system　from　Maine　to　the　Floridas。　In　some　States　（and　that　of　New　York　has　advanced　most　in　this　direction）　traces　of　a　centralized　administration　begin　to　be　discernible。　　In　the　State　of　New　York　the　officers　of　the　central　government　exercise；　in　certain　cases；　a　sort　of　inspection　or　control　over　the　secondary　bodies。　*i

＇Footnote　i：　For　instance；　the　direction　of　public　instruction　centres　in　the　hands　of　the　Government。　　The　legislature　names　the　members　of　the　University；　who　are　denominated　Regents；　the　Governor　and　Lieutentant…Governor　of　the　State　are　necessarily　of　the　number。　…　Revised　Statutes；　vol。　i。　p。　455。　　The　Regents　of　the　University　annually　visit　the　colleges　and　academies；　and　make　their　report　to　the　legislature。　　Their　superintendence　is　not　inefficient；　for　several　reasons：　the　colleges　in　order　to　become　corporations　stand　in　need　of　a　charter；　which　is　only　granted　on　the　recommendation　of　the　Regents；　every　year　funds　are　distributed　by　the　State　for　the　encouragement　of　learning；　and　the　Regents　are　the　distributors　of　this　money。　　See　chap。　xv。　Instruction；〃　Revised　Statutes；　vol。　i。　p。　455。

The　school…commissioners　are　obliged　to　send　an　annual　report　to　the　Superintendent　of　the　Republic。　…　Id。　p。　488。

A　similar　report　is　annually　made　to　the　same　person　on　the　number　and　condition　of　the　poor。　…　Id。　p。　631。＇

At　other　times　they　constitute　a　court　of　appeal　for　the　decision　of　affairs。　*j　In　the　State　of　New　York　judicial　penalties　are　less　used　than　in　other　parts　as　a　means　of　administration；　and　the　right　of　prosecuting　the　offences　of　public　officers　is　vested　in　fewer　hands。　*k　The　same　tendency　is　faintly　observable　in　some　other　States；　*l　but　in　general　the　prominent　feature　of　the　administration　in　the　United　States　is　its　excessive　local　independence。

＇Footnote　j：　If　any　one　conceives　himself　to　be　wronged　by　the　school…commissioners　（who　are　town…officers）；　he　can　appeal　to　the　superintendent　of　the　primary　schools；　whose　decision　is　final。　…　Revised　Statutes；　vol。　i。　p。　487。

Provisions　similar　to　those　above　cited　are　to　be　met　with　from　time　to　time　in　the　laws　of　the　State　of　New　York；　but　in　general　these　attempts　at　centralization　are　weak　and　unproductive。　　The　great　authorities　of　the　State　have　the　right　of　watching　and　controlling　the　subordinate　agents；　without　that　of　rewarding　or　punishing　them。　　The　same　individual　is　never　empowered　to　give　an　order　and　to　punish　disobedience；　he　has　therefore　the　right　of　commanding；　without　the　means　of　exacting　compliance。　　In　1830　the　Superintendent　of　Schools　complained　in　his　Annual　Report　addressed　to　the　legislature　that　several　school…commissioners　had　neglected；　notwithstanding　his　application；　to　furnish　him　with　the　accounts　which　were　due。　　He　added　that　if　this　omission　continued　he　should　be　obliged　to　prosecute　them；　as　the　law　directs；　before　the　proper　tribunals。＇

＇Footnote　k：　Thus　the　district…attorney　is　directed　to　recover　all　fines　below　the　sum　of　fifty　dollars；　unless　such　a　right　has　been　specially　awarded　to　another　magistrate。　…　Revised　Statutes；　vol。　i。　p。　383。＇

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