democracy in america-1-第28章

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eir　mildness　which　renders　the　American　laws　most　formidable　in　this　respect。　　We　have　shown　that　in　Europe　the　removal　of　a　functionary　and　his　political　interdiction　are　the　consequences　of　the　penalty　he　is　to　undergo；　and　that　in　America　they　constitute　the　penalty　itself。　　The　consequence　is　that　in　Europe　political　tribunals　are　invested　with　rights　which　they　are　afraid　to　use；　and　that　the　fear　of　punishing　too　much　hinders　them　from　punishing　at　all。　But　in　America　no　one　hesitates　to　inflict　a　penalty　from　which　humanity　does　not　recoil。　　To　condemn　a　political　opponent　to　death；　in　order　to　deprive　him　of　his　power；　is　to　commit　what　all　the　world　would　execrate　as　a　horrible　assassination；　but　to　declare　that　opponent　unworthy　to　exercise　that　authority；　to　deprive　him　of　it；　and　to　leave　him　uninjured　in　life　and　limb；　may　be　judged　to　be　the　fair　issue　of　the　struggle。　　But　this　sentence；　which　it　is　so　easy　to　pronounce；　is　not　the　less　fatally　severe　to　the　majority　of　those　upon　whom　it　is　inflicted。　　Great　criminals　may　undoubtedly　brave　its　intangible　rigor；　but　ordinary　offenders　will　dread　it　as　a　condemnation　which　destroys　their　position　in　the　world；　casts　a　blight　upon　their　honor；　and　condemns　them　to　a　shameful　inactivity　worse　than　death。　The　influence　exercised　in　the　United　States　upon　the　progress　of　society　by　the　jurisdiction　of　political　bodies　may　not　appear　to　be　formidable；　but　it　is　only　the　more　immense。　　It　does　not　directly　coerce　the　subject；　but　it　renders　the　majority　more　absolute　over　those　in　power；　it　does　not　confer　an　unbounded　authority　on　the　legislator　which　can　be　exerted　at　some　momentous　crisis；　but　it　establishes　a　temperate　and　regular　influence；　which　is　at　all　times　available。　　If　the　power　is　decreased；　it　can；　on　the　other　hand；　be　more　conveniently　employed　and　more　easily　abused。　　By　preventing　political　tribunals　from　inflicting　judicial　punishments　the　Americans　seem　to　have　eluded　the　worst　consequences　of　legislative　tyranny；　rather　than　tyranny　itself；　and　I　am　not　sure　that　political　jurisdiction；　as　it　is　constituted　in　the　United　States；　is　not　the　most　formidable　weapon　which　has　ever　been　placed　in　the　rude　grasp　of　a　popular　majority。　　When　the　American　republics　begin　to　degenerate　it　will　be　easy　to　verify　the　truth　of　this　observation；　by　remarking　whether　the　number　of　political　impeachments　augments。*d

＇Footnote　b：　Chap。　I。　sect。　ii。　Section　8。＇

＇Footnote　c：　See　the　constitutions　of　Illinois；　Maine；　Connecticut；　and　Georgia。＇

＇Footnote　d：　See　Appendix；　N。

＇The　impeachment　of　President　Andrew　Johnson　in　1868　…　which　was　resorted　to　by　his　political　opponents　solely　as　a　means　of　turning　him　out　of　office；　for　it　could　not　be　contended　that　he　had　been　guilty　of　high　crimes　and　misdemeanors；　and　he　was　in　fact　honorably　acquitted　and　reinstated　in　office　…　is　a　striking　confirmation　of　the　truth　of　this　remark。　…　Translator's　Note；　1874。＇＇


Chapter　VIII：　The　Federal　Constitution　…　Part　I

I　have　hitherto　considered　each　State　as　a　separate　whole；　and　I　have　explained　the　different　springs　which　the　people　sets　in　motion；　and　the　different　means　of　action　which　it　employs。　　But　all　the　States　which　I　have　considered　as　independent　are　forced　to　submit；　in　certain　cases；　to　the　supreme　authority　of　the　Union。　　The　time　is　now　come　for　me　to　examine　separately　the　supremacy　with　which　the　Union　has　been　invested；　and　to　cast　a　rapid　glance　over　the　Federal　Constitution。

Chapter　Summary

Origin　of　the　first　Union　…　Its　weakness　…　Congress　appeals　to　the　constituent　authority　…　Interval　of　two　years　between　this　appeal　and　the　promulgation　of　the　new　Constitution。

History　Of　The　Federal　Constitution


The　thirteen　colonies　which　simultaneously　threw　off　the　yoke　of　England　towards　the　end　of　the　last　century　professed；　as　I　have　already　observed；　the　same　religion；　the　same　language；　the　same　customs；　and　almost　the　same　laws；　they　were　struggling　against　a　common　enemy；　and　these　reasons　were　sufficiently　strong　to　unite　them　one　to　another；　and　to　consolidate　them　into　one　nation。　　But　as　each　of　them　had　enjoyed　a　separate　existence　and　a　government　within　its　own　control；　the　peculiar　interests　and　customs　which　resulted　from　this　system　were　opposed　to　a　compact　and　intimate　union　which　would　have　absorbed　the　individual　importance　of　each　in　the　general　importance　of　all。　　Hence　arose　two　opposite　tendencies；　the　one　prompting　the　Anglo…Americans　to　unite；　the　other　to　divide　their　strength。　　As　long　as　the　war　with　the　mother…country　lasted　the　principle　of　union　was　kept　alive　by　necessity；　and　although　the　laws　which　constituted　it　were　defective；　the　common　tie　subsisted　in　spite　of　their　imperfections。　*a　But　no　sooner　was　peace　concluded　than　the　faults　of　the　legislation　became　manifest；　and　the　State　seemed　to　be　suddenly　dissolved。　　Each　colony　became　an　independent　republic；　and　assumed　an　absolute　sovereignty。　　The　federal　government；　condemned　to　impotence　by　its　constitution；　and　no　longer　sustained　by　the　presence　of　a　common　danger；　witnessed　the　outrages　offered　to　its　flag　by　the　great　nations　of　Europe；　whilst　it　was　scarcely　able　to　maintain　its　ground　against　the　Indian　tribes；　and　to　pay　the　interest　of　the　debt　which　had　been　contracted　during　the　war　of　independence。　　It　was　already　on　the　verge　of　destruction；　when　it　officially　proclaimed　its　inability　to　conduct　the　government；　and　appealed　to　the　constituent　authority　of　the　nation。　*b　If　America　ever　approached　（for　however　brief　a　time）　that　lofty　pinnacle　of　glory　to　which　the　fancy　of　its　inhabitants　is　wont　to　point；　it　was　at　the　solemn　moment　at　which　the　power　of　the　nation　abdicated；　as　it　were；　the　empire　of　the　land。　　All　ages　have　furnished　the　spectacle　of　a　people　struggling　with　energy　to　win　its　independence；　and　the　efforts　of　the　Americans　in　throwing　off　the　English　yoke　have　been　considerably　exaggerated。　Separated　from　their　enemies　by　three　thousand　miles　of　ocean；　and　backed　by　a　powerful　ally；　the　success　of　the　United　States　may　be　more　justly　attributed　to　their　geographical　position　than　to　the　valor　of　their　armies　or　the　patriotism　of　their　citizens。　　It　would　be　ridiculous　to　compare　the　American　was　to　the　wars　of　the　French　Revolution；　or　the　efforts　of　the　Americans　to　those　of　the　French　when　they　were　attacked　by　the　whole　of　Europe；　without　credit　and　without　allies；　yet　capable　of　opposing　a　twentieth　part　of　their　population　to　the　world；　and　of　bearing　the　torch　of　revolution　beyond　their　frontiers　whilst　they　stifled　its　devouring　flame　within　the　bosom　of　their　country。　　But　it　is　a　novelty　in　the　history　of　society　to　see　a　great　people　turn　a　calm　and　scrutinizing　eye　upon　itself；　when　apprised　by　the　legislature　that　the　wheels　of　government　are　stopped；　to　see　it　carefully　examine　the　extent　of　the　evil；　and　patiently　wait　for　two　whole　years　until　a　remedy　was　discovered；　which　it　voluntarily　adopted　without　having　wrung　a　tear　or　a　drop　of　blood　from　mankind。　　At　the　time　when　the　inadequacy　of　the　first　constitution　was　discovered　America　possessed　the　double　advantage　of　that　calm　which　had　succeeded　the　effervescence　of　the　revolution；　and　of　those　great　men　who　had　led　the　revolution　to　a　successful　issue。　　The　assembly　which　accepted　the　task　of　composing　the　second　constitution　was　small；　*c　but　George　Washington　was　its　President；　and　it　contained　the　choicest　talents　and　the　noblest　hearts　which　had　ever　appeared　in　the　New　World。　　This　national　commission；　after　long　and　mature　deliberation；　offered　to　the　acceptance　of　the　people　the　body　of　general　laws　which　still　rules　the　Union。　　All　the　States　adopted　it　successively。　*d　The　new　Federal　Government　commenced　its　functions　in　1789；　after　an　interregnum　of　two　years。　　The　Revolution　of　America　terminated　when　that　of　France　began。　

＇Footnote　a：　See　the　articles　of　the　first　confederation　formed　in　1778。　This　constitution　was　not　adopted　by　all　the　States　until　1781。　　See　also　the　analysis　given　of　this　constitution　in　〃The　Federalist〃　from　No。　15　to　No。　22；　inclusive；　and　Story's　〃Commentaries　on　the　Constitution　of　the　United　States；〃　pp。　85…115。＇

＇Footnote　b：　Congress　made　this　declaration　on　February　21；　1787。＇　

＇Footnote　c：　It　consisted　of　fifty…five　members；　Washington；　Madison；　Hamilton；　and　the　two　Morrises　were　amongst　the　number。＇　

＇Footnote　d：　It　was　not　adopted　by　the　legislative　bodies；　but　representatives　were　elected　by　the　people　for　this　sole　purpose；　and　the　new　constitution　was　discussed　at　length　in　each　of　these　assemblies。＇

Summary　Of　The　Federal　Constitution

Division　of　authority　between　the　Federal　Government　and　the　States　…　The　Government　of　the　States　is　the　rule；　the　Federal　Government　the　exception。

The　first　question　which　awaited　the　Americans　was　intricate；　and　by　no　means　easy　of　solution：　the　object　was　so　to　divide　the　authority　of　the　different　States　which　composed　the　Union　that　each　of　them　should　continue　to　govern　itself　in　all　that　concerned　its　internal　prosperity；　whilst　the　entire　nation；　represented　by　the　Union；　should　continue　to　form　a　compact　body；　and　to　provide　for　the　general　exigencies　of　the　people。　　It　was　as　impossible　to　determine　beforehand；　with　any　degree　of　accuracy；　the　share　of　authority　which　each　of　two　governments　was　to　enjoy；　as　to　foresee　all　the　incidents　in　the　existence　of　a　nation。

The　obligations　and　the　claims　of　the　Federal　Government　were　simple　and　easily　definable；　because　the　Union　had　been　formed　with　the　express　purpose　of　meeting　the　general　exigencies　of　the　people；　but　the　claims　and　obligations　of　the　States　were；　on　the　other　hand；　complicated　and　various；　because　those　Governments　had　penetrated　into　all　the　details　of　social　life。　The　attributes　of　the　Federal　Government　were　therefore　carefully　enumerated　and　all　that　was　not　included　amongst　them　was　declared　to　constitute　a　part　of　the　privileges　of　the　several　Governments　of　the　States。　　Thus　the　government　of　the　States　remained　the　rule；　and　that　of　the　Confederation　became　the　exception。　*e

＇Footnote　e：　See　the　Amendment　to　the　Federal　Constitution；　〃Federalist；〃　No。　32；　Story；　p。　711；　Kent's　〃Commentaries；〃　vol。　i。　p。　364。

It　is　to　be　observed　that　whenever　the　exclusive　right　of　regulating　certain　matters　is　not　reserved　to　Congress　by　the　Constitution；　the　States　may　take　up　the　affair　until　it　is　brought　before　the　National　Assembly。　　For　instance；　Congress　has　the　right　of　making　a　general　law　on　bankruptcy；　which；　however；　it　neglects　to　do。　　Each　State　is　then　at　liberty　to　make　a　law　for　itself。　　This　point　has　been　established　by　discussion　in　the　law…courts；　and　may　be　said　to　belong　more　properly　to　jurisprudence。＇　

But　as　it　was　foreseen　that；　in　practice；　questions　might　arise　as　to　the　exact　limits　of　this　exceptional　authority；　and　that　it　would　be　dangerous　to　submit　these　questions　to　the　decision　of　the　ordinary　courts　of　justice；　established　in　the　States　by　the　States　themselves；　a　high　Federal　court　was　created；　*f　which　was　destined；　amongst　other　functions；　to　maintain　the　balance　of　power　which　had　been　established　by　the　Constitution　between　the　two　rival