democracy in america-1-第42章

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The　geographical　position　of　the　country　contributed　to　increase　the　facilities　which　the　American　legislators　derived　from　the　manners　and　customs　of　the　inhabitants；　and　it　is　to　this　circumstance　that　the　adoption　and　the　maintenance　of　the　Federal　system　are　mainly　attributable。

The　most　important　occurrence　which　can　mark　the　annals　of　a　people　is　the　breaking　out　of　a　war。　　In　war　a　people　struggles　with　the　energy　of　a　single　man　against　foreign　nations　in　the　defence　of　its　very　existence。　　The　skill　of　a　government；　the　good　sense　of　the　community；　and　the　natural　fondness　which　men　entertain　for　their　country；　may　suffice　to　maintain　peace　in　the　interior　of　a　district；　and　to　favor　its　internal　prosperity；　but　a　nation　can　only　carry　on　a　great　war　at　the　cost　of　more　numerous　and　more　painful　sacrifices；　and　to　suppose　that　a　great　number　of　men　will　of　their　own　accord　comply　with　these　exigencies　of　the　State　is　to　betray　an　ignorance　of　mankind。　　All　the　peoples　which　have　been　obliged　to　sustain　a　long　and　serious　warfare　have　consequently　been　led　to　augment　the　power　of　their　government。　　Those　which　have　not　succeeded　in　this　attempt　have　been　subjugated。　　A　long　war　almost　always　places　nations　in　the　wretched　alternative　of　being　abandoned　to　ruin　by　defeat　or　to　despotism　by　success。　War　therefore　renders　the　symptoms　of　the　weakness　of　a　government　most　palpable　and　most　alarming；　and　I　have　shown　that　the　inherent　defeat　of　federal　governments　is　that　of　being　weak。

The　Federal　system　is　not　only　deficient　in　every　kind　of　centralized　administration；　but　the　central　government　itself　is　imperfectly　organized；　which　is　invariably　an　influential　cause　of　inferiority　when　the　nation　is　opposed　to　other　countries　which　are　themselves　governed　by　a　single　authority。　　In　the　Federal　Constitution　of　the　United　States；　by　which　the　central　government　possesses　more　real　force；　this　evil　is　still　extremely　sensible。　　An　example　will　illustrate　the　case　to　the　reader。

The　Constitution　confers　upon　Congress　the　right　of　calling　forth　militia　to　execute　the　laws　of　the　Union；　suppress　insurrections；　and　repel　invasions；　and　another　article　declares　that　the　President　of　the　United　States　is　the　commander…in…chief　of　the　militia。　　In　the　war　of　1812　the　President　ordered　the　militia　of　the　Northern　States　to　march　to　the　frontiers；　but　Connecticut　and　Massachusetts；　whose　interests　were　impaired　by　the　war；　refused　to　obey　the　command。　　They　argued　that　the　Constitution　authorizes　the　Federal　Government　to　call　forth　the　militia　in　case　of　insurrection　or　invasion；　but　that　in　the　present　instance　there　was　neither　invasion　nor　insurrection。　They　added；　that　the　same　Constitution　which　conferred　upon　the　Union　the　right　of　calling　forth　the　militia　reserved　to　the　States　that　of　naming　the　officers；　and　that　consequently　（as　they　understood　the　clause）　no　officer　of　the　Union　had　any　right　to　command　the　militia；　even　during　war；　except　the　President　in　person；　and　in　this　case　they　were　ordered　to　join　an　army　commanded　by　another　individual。　　These　absurd　and　pernicious　doctrines　received　the　sanction　not　only　of　the　governors　and　the　legislative　bodies；　but　also　of　the　courts　of　justice　in　both　States；　and　the　Federal　Government　was　constrained　to　raise　elsewhere　the　troops　which　it　required。　*v

＇Footnote　v：　Kent's　〃Commentaries；〃　vol。　i。　p。　244。　　I　have　selected　an　example　which　relates　to　a　time　posterior　to　the　promulgation　of　the　present　Constitution。　　If　I　had　gone　back　to　the　days　of　the　Confederation；　I　might　have　given　still　more　striking　instances。　　The　whole　nation　was　at　that　time　in　a　state　of　enthusiastic　excitement；　the　Revolution　was　represented　by　a　man　who　was　the　idol　of　the　people；　but　at　that　very　period　Congress　had；　to　say　the　truth；　no　resources　at　all　at　its　disposal。　　Troops　and　supplies　were　perpetually　wanting。　　The　best…devised　projects　failed　in　the　execution；　and　the　Union；　which　was　constantly　on　the　verge　of　destruction；　was　saved　by　the　weakness　of　its　enemies　far　more　than　by　its　own　strength。　　＇All　doubt　as　to　the　powers　of　the　Federal　Executive　was；　however；　removed　by　its　efforts　in　the　Civil　War；　and　those　powers　were　largely　extended。＇＇

The　only　safeguard　which　the　American　Union；　with　all　the　relative　perfection　of　its　laws；　possesses　against　the　dissolution　which　would　be　produced　by　a　great　war；　lies　in　its　probable　exemption　from　that　calamity。　Placed　in　the　centre　of　an　immense　continent；　which　offers　a　boundless　field　for　human　industry；　the　Union　is　almost　as　much　insulated　from　the　world　as　if　its　frontiers　were　girt　by　the　ocean。　　Canada　contains　only　a　million　of　inhabitants；　and　its　population　is　divided　into　two　inimical　nations。　　The　rigor　of　the　climate　limits　the　extension　of　its　territory；　and　shuts　up　its　ports　during　the　six　months　of　winter。　　From　Canada　to　the　Gulf　of　Mexico　a　few　savage　tribes　are　to　be　met　with；　which　retire；　perishing　in　their　retreat；　before　six　thousand　soldiers。　　To　the　South；　the　Union　has　a　point　of　contact　with　the　empire　of　Mexico；　and　it　is　thence　that　serious　hostilities　may　one　day　be　expected　to　arise。　　But　for　a　long　while　to　come　the　uncivilized　state　of　the　Mexican　community；　the　depravity　of　its　morals；　and　its　extreme　poverty；　will　prevent　that　country　from　ranking　high　amongst　nations。　*w　As　for　the　Powers　of　Europe；　they　are　too　distant　to　be　formidable。

＇Footnote　w：　＇War　broke　out　between　the　United　States　and　Mexico　in　1846；　and　ended　in　the　conquest　of　an　immense　territory；　including　California。＇＇

The　great　advantage　of　the　United　States　does　not；　then；　consist　in　a　Federal　Constitution　which　allows　them　to　carry　on　great　wars；　but　in　a　geographical　position　which　renders　such　enterprises　extremely　improbable。

No　one　can　be　more　inclined　than　I　am　myself　to　appreciate　the　advantages　of　the　federal　system；　which　I　hold　to　be　one　of　the　combinations　most　favorable　to　the　prosperity　and　freedom　of　man。　　I　envy　the　lot　of　those　nations　which　have　been　enabled　to　adopt　it；　but　I　cannot　believe　that　any　confederate　peoples　could　maintain　a　long　or　an　equal　contest　with　a　nation　of　similar　strength　in　which　the　government　should　be　centralized。　　A　people　which　should　divide　its　sovereignty　into　fractional　powers；　in　the　presence　of　the　great　military　monarchies　of　Europe；　would；　in　my　opinion；　by　that　very　act；　abdicate　its　power；　and　perhaps　its　existence　and　its　name。　　But　such　is　the　admirable　position　of　the　New　World　that　man　has　no　other　enemy　than　himself；　and　that；　in　order　to　be　happy　and　to　be　free；　it　suffices　to　seek　the　gifts　of　prosperity　and　the　knowledge　of　freedom。


Chapter　XI：　Why　The　People　May　Strictly　Be　Said　To　Govern　In　The　United　States

I　have　hitherto　examined　the　institutions　of　the　United　States；　I　have　passed　their　legislation　in　review；　and　I　have　depicted　the　present　characteristics　of　political　society　in　that　country。　　But　a　sovereign　power　exists　above　these　institutions　and　beyond　these　characteristic　features　which　may　destroy　or　modify　them　at　its　pleasure　…　I　mean　that　of　the　people。　It　remains　to　be　shown　in　what　manner　this　power；　which　regulates　the　laws；　acts：　its　propensities　and　its　passions　remain　to　be　pointed　out；　as　well　as　the　secret　springs　which　retard；　accelerate；　or　direct　its　irresistible　course；　and　the　effects　of　its　unbounded　authority；　with　the　destiny　which　is　probably　reserved　for　it。


Chapter　X：　Why　The　People　May　Strictly　Be　Said　To　Govern　In　The　United　States

In　America　the　people　appoints　the　legislative　and　the　executive　power；　and　furnishes　the　jurors　who　punish　all　offences　against　the　laws。　　The　American　institutions　are　democratic；　not　only　in　their　principle　but　in　all　their　consequences；　and　the　people　elects　its　representatives　directly；　and　for　the　most　part　annually；　in　order　to　ensure　their　dependence。　　The　people　is　therefore　the　real　directing　power；　and　although　the　form　of　government　is　representative；　it　is　evident　that　the　opinions；　the　prejudices；　the　interests；　and　even　the　passions　of　the　community　are　hindered　by　no　durable　obstacles　from　exercising　a　perpetual　influence　on　society。　　In　the　United　States　the　majority　governs　in　the　name　of　the　people；　as　is　the　case　in　all　the　countries　in　which　the　people　is　supreme。　　The　majority　is　principally　composed　of　peaceful　citizens　who；　either　by　inclination　or　by　interest；　are　sincerely　desirous　of　the　welfare　of　their　country。　　But　they　are　surrounded　by　the　incessant　agitation　of　parties；　which　attempt　to　gain　their　co…operation　and　to　avail　themselves　of　their　support。　　Chapter　X：　Parties　In　The　United　States

Chapter　Summary

Great　distinction　to　be　made　between　parties　…　Parties　which　are　to　each　other　as　rival　nations　…　Parties　properly　so　called　…　Difference　between　great　and　small　parties　…　Epochs　which　produce　them　…　Their　characteristics　…　America　has　had　great　parties　…　They　are　extinct　…　Federalists　…　Republicans　…　Defeat　of　the　Federalists　…　Difficulty　of　creating　parties　in　the　United　States　…What　is　done　with　this　intention　…　Aristocratic　or　democratic　character　to　be　met　with　in　all　parties　…　Struggle　of　General　Jackson　against　the　Bank。

Parties　In　The　United　States

A　great　distinction　must　be　made　between　parties。　　Some　countries　are　so　large　that　the　different　populations　which　inhabit　them　have　contradictory　interests；　although　they　are　the　subjects　of　the　same　Government；　and　they　may　thence　be　in　a　perpetual　state　of　opposition。　　In　this　case　the　different　fractions　of　the　people　may　more　properly　be　considered　as　distinct　nations　than　as　mere　parties；　and　if　a　civil　war　breaks　out；　the　struggle　is　carried　on　by　rival　peoples　rather　than　by　factions　in　the　State。

But　when　the　citizens　entertain　different　opinions　upon　subjects　which　affect　the　whole　country　alike；　such；　for　instance；　as　the　principles　upon　which　the　government　is　to　be　conducted；　then　distinctions　arise　which　may　correctly　be　styled　parties。　　Parties　are　a　necessary　evil　in　free　governments；　but　they　have　not　at　all　times　the　same　character　and　the　same　propensities。　

At　certain　periods　a　nation　may　be　oppressed　by　such　insupportable　evils　as　to　conceive　the　design　of　effecting　a　total　change　in　its　political　constitution；　at　other　times　the　mischief　lies　still　deeper；　and　the　existence　of　society　itself　is　endangered。　　Such　are　the　times　of　great　revolutions　and　of　great　parties。　　But　between　these　epochs　of　misery　and　of　confusion　there　are　periods　during　which　human　society　seems　to　rest；　and　mankind　to　make　a　pause。　　This　pause　is；　indeed；　only　apparent；　for　time　does　not　stop　its　course　for　nations　any　more　than　for　men；　they　are　all　advancing　towards　a　goal　with　which　they　are　unacquainted；　and　we　only　imagine　them　to　be　stationary　when　their　progress　escapes　our　observation；　as　men　who　are　going　at　a　foot…pace　seem　to　be　standing　still　to　those　who　run。

But　however　this　may　be；　there　are　certain　epochs　at　which　the　changes　that　take　place　in　the　social　and　political　constitution　of　nations　are　so　slow　and　so　insensible　that　men　imagine　their　present　condition　to　be　a　final　state；　and　the　human　mind；　believing　itself　to　be　firmly　based　upon　certain　foundations；　d