democracy in america-1-第48章

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The　means　which　the　associations　of　Europe　employ　are　in　accordance　with　the　end　which　they　propose　to　obtain。　　As　the　principal　aim　of　these　bodies　is　to　act；　and　not　to　debate；　to　fight　rather　than　to　persuade；　they　are　naturally　led　to　adopt　a　form　of　organization　which　differs　from　the　ordinary　customs　of　civil　bodies；　and　which　assumes　the　habits　and　the　maxims　of　military　life。　　They　centralize　the　direction　of　their　resources　as　much　as　possible；　and　they　intrust　the　power　of　the　whole　party　to　a　very　small　number　of　leaders。

The　members　of　these　associations　respond　to　a　watchword；　like　soldiers　on　duty；　they　profess　the　doctrine　of　passive　obedience；　say　rather；　that　in　uniting　together　they　at　once　abjure　the　exercise　of　their　own　judgment　and　free　will；　and　the　tyrannical　control　which　these　societies　exercise　is　often　far　more　insupportable　than　the　authority　possessed　over　society　by　the　Government　which　they　attack。　　Their　moral　force　is　much　diminished　by　these　excesses；　and　they　lose　the　powerful　interest　which　is　always　excited　by　a　struggle　between　oppressors　and　the　oppressed。　　The　man　who　in　given　cases　consents　to　obey　his　fellows　with　servility；　and　who　submits　his　activity　and　even　his　opinions　to　their　control；　can　have　no　claim　to　rank　as　a　free　citizen。　

The　Americans　have　also　established　certain　forms　of　government　which　are　applied　to　their　associations；　but　these　are　invariably　borrowed　from　the　forms　of　the　civil　administration。　　The　independence　of　each　individual　is　formally　recognized；　the　tendency　of　the　members　of　the　association　points；　as　it　does　in　the　body　of　the　community；　towards　the　same　end；　but　they　are　not　obliged　to　follow　the　same　track。　　No　one　abjures　the　exercise　of　his　reason　and　his　free　will；　but　every　one　exerts　that　reason　and　that　will　for　the　benefit　of　a　common　undertaking。


Chapter　XIII：　Government　Of　The　Democracy　In　America　…　Part　I　　I　am　well　aware　of　the　difficulties　which　attend　this　part　of　my　subject；　but　although　every　expression　which　I　am　about　to　make　use　of　may　clash；　upon　some　one　point；　with　the　feelings　of　the　different　parties　which　divide　my　country；　I　shall　speak　my　opinion　with　the　most　perfect　openness。

In　Europe　we　are　at　a　loss　how　to　judge　the　true　character　and　the　more　permanent　propensities　of　democracy；　because　in　Europe　two　conflicting　principles　exist；　and　we　do　not　know　what　to　attribute　to　the　principles　themselves；　and　what　to　refer　to　the　passions　which　they　bring　into　collision。　Such；　however；　is　not　the　case　in　America；　there　the　people　reigns　without　any　obstacle；　and　it　has　no　perils　to　dread　and　no　injuries　to　avenge。　　In　America；　democracy　is　swayed　by　its　own　free　propensities；　its　course　is　natural　and　its　activity　is　unrestrained；　the　United　States　consequently　afford　the　most　favorable　opportunity　of　studying　its　real　character。　　And　to　no　people　can　this　inquiry　be　more　vitally　interesting　than　to　the　French　nation；　which　is　blindly　driven　onwards　by　a　daily　and　irresistible　impulse　towards　a　state　of　things　which　may　prove　either　despotic　or　republican；　but　which　will　assuredly　be　democratic。

Universal　Suffrage

I　have　already　observed　that　universal　suffrage　has　been　adopted　in　all　the　States　of　the　Union；　it　consequently　occurs　amongst　different　populations　which　occupy　very　different　positions　in　the　scale　of　society。　　I　have　had　opportunities　of　observing　its　effects　in　different　localities；　and　amongst　races　of　men　who　are　nearly　strangers　to　each　other　by　their　language；　their　religion；　and　their　manner　of　life；　in　Louisiana　as　well　as　in　New　England；　in　Georgia　and　in　Canada。　　I　have　remarked　that　Universal　Suffrage　is　far　from　producing　in　America　either　all　the　good　or　all　the　evil　consequences　which　are　assigned　to　it　in　Europe；　and　that　its　effects　differ　very　widely　from　those　which　are　usually　attributed　to　it。

Choice　Of　The　People；　And　Instinctive　Preferences　Of　The　American　Democracy

In　the　United　States　the　most　able　men　are　rarely　placed　at　the　head　of　affairs　…　Reason　of　this　peculiarity　…　The　envy　which　prevails　in　the　lower　orders　of　France　against　the　higher　classes　is　not　a　French；　but　a　purely　democratic　sentiment　…　For　what　reason　the　most　distinguished　men　in　America　frequently　seclude　themselves　from　public　affairs。

Many　people　in　Europe　are　apt　to　believe　without　saying　it；　or　to　say　without　believing　it；　that　one　of　the　great　advantages　of　universal　suffrage　is；　that　it　entrusts　the　direction　of　public　affairs　to　men　who　are　worthy　of　the　public　confidence。　　They　admit　that　the　people　is　unable　to　govern　for　itself；　but　they　aver　that　it　is　always　sincerely　disposed　to　promote　the　welfare　of　the　State；　and　that　it　instinctively　designates　those　persons　who　are　animated　by　the　same　good　wishes；　and　who　are　the　most　fit　to　wield　the　supreme　authority。　　I　confess　that　the　observations　I　made　in　America　by　no　means　coincide　with　these　opinions。　　On　my　arrival　in　the　United　States　I　was　surprised　to　find　so　much　distinguished　talent　among　the　subjects；　and　so　little　among　the　heads　of　the　Government。　　It　is　a　well…authenticated　fact；　that　at　the　present　day　the　most　able　men　in　the　United　States　are　very　rarely　placed　at　the　head　of　affairs；　and　it　must　be　acknowledged　that　such　has　been　the　result　in　proportion　as　democracy　has　outstepped　all　its　former　limits。　The　race　of　American　statesmen　has　evidently　dwindled　most　remarkably　in　the　course　of　the　last　fifty　years。　

Several　causes　may　be　assigned　to　this　phenomenon。　　It　is　impossible；　notwithstanding　the　most　strenuous　exertions；　to　raise　the　intelligence　of　the　people　above　a　certain　level。　　Whatever　may　be　the　facilities　of　acquiring　information；　whatever　may　be　the　profusion　of　easy　methods　and　of　cheap　science；　the　human　mind　can　never　be　instructed　and　educated　without　devoting　a　considerable　space　of　time　to　those　objects。

The　greater　or　the　lesser　possibility　of　subsisting　without　labor　is　therefore　the　necessary　boundary　of　intellectual　improvement。　　This　boundary　is　more　remote　in　some　countries　and　more　restricted　in　others；　but　it　must　exist　somewhere　as　long　as　the　people　is　constrained　to　work　in　order　to　procure　the　means　of　physical　subsistence；　that　is　to　say；　as　long　as　it　retains　its　popular　character。　　It　is　therefore　quite　as　difficult　to　imagine　a　State　in　which　all　the　citizens　should　be　very　well　informed　as　a　State　in　which　they　should　all　be　wealthy；　these　two　difficulties　may　be　looked　upon　as　correlative。　　It　may　very　readily　be　admitted　that　the　mass　of　the　citizens　are　sincerely　disposed　to　promote　the　welfare　of　their　country；　nay　more；　it　may　even　be　allowed　that　the　lower　classes　are　less　apt　to　be　swayed　by　considerations　of　personal　interest　than　the　higher　orders：　but　it　is　always　more　or　less　impossible　for　them　to　discern　the　best　means　of　attaining　the　end　which　they　desire　with　sincerity。　　Long　and　patient　observation；　joined　to　a　multitude　of　different　notions；　is　required　to　form　a　just　estimate　of　the　character　of　a　single　individual；　and　can　it　be　supposed　that　the　vulgar　have　the　power　of　succeeding　in　an　inquiry　which　misleads　the　penetration　of　genius　itself？　　The　people　has　neither　the　time　nor　the　means　which　are　essential　to　the　prosecution　of　an　investigation　of　this　kind：　its　conclusions　are　hastily　formed　from　a　superficial　inspection　of　the　more　prominent　features　of　a　question。　　Hence　it　often　assents　to　the　clamor　of　a　mountebank　who　knows　the　secret　of　stimulating　its　tastes；　while　its　truest　friends　frequently　fail　in　their　exertions。

Moreover；　the　democracy　is　not　only　deficient　in　that　soundness　of　judgment　which　is　necessary　to　select　men　really　deserving　of　its　confidence；　but　it　has　neither　the　desire　nor　the　inclination　to　find　them　out。　　It　cannot　be　denied　that　democratic　institutions　have　a　very　strong　tendency　to　promote　the　feeling　of　envy　in　the　human　heart；　not　so　much　because　they　afford　to　every　one　the　means　of　rising　to　the　level　of　any　of　his　fellow…citizens；　as　because　those　means　perpetually　disappoint　the　persons　who　employ　them。　Democratic　institutions　awaken　and　foster　a　passion　for　equality　which　they　can　never　entirely　satisfy。　　This　complete　equality　eludes　the　grasp　of　the　people　at　the　very　moment　at　which　it　thinks　to　hold　it　fast；　and　〃flies；〃　as　Pascal　says；　〃with　eternal　flight〃；　the　people　is　excited　in　the　pursuit　of　an　advantage；　which　is　more　precious　because　it　is　not　sufficiently　remote　to　be　unknown；　or　sufficiently　near　to　be　enjoyed。　The　lower　orders　are　agitated　by　the　chance　of　success；　they　are　irritated　by　its　uncertainty；　and　they　pass　from　the　enthusiasm　of　pursuit　to　the　exhaustion　of　ill…success；　and　lastly　to　the　acrimony　of　disappointment。　Whatever　transcends　their　own　limits　appears　to　be　an　obstacle　to　their　desires；　and　there　is　no　kind　of　superiority；　however　legitimate　it　may　be；　which　is　not　irksome　in　their　sight。　

It　has　been　supposed　that　the　secret　instinct　which　leads　the　lower　orders　to　remove　their　superiors　as　much　as　possible　from　the　direction　of　public　affairs　is　peculiar　to　France。　　This；　however；　is　an　error；　the　propensity　to　which　I　allude　is　not　inherent　in　any　particular　nation；　but　in　democratic　institutions　in　general；　and　although　it　may　have　been　heightened　by　peculiar　political　circumstances；　it　owes　its　origin　to　a　higher　cause。

In　the　United　States　the　people　is　not　disposed　to　hate　the　superior　classes　of　society；　but　it　is　not　very　favorably　inclined　towards　them；　and　it　carefully　excludes　them　from　the　exercise　of　authority。　　It　does　not　entertain　any　dread　of　distinguished　talents；　but　it　is　rarely　captivated　by　them；　and　it　awards　its　approbation　very　sparingly　to　such　as　have　risen　without　the　popular　support。

Whilst　the　natural　propensities　of　democracy　induce　the　people　to　reject　the　most　distinguished　citizens　as　its　rulers；　these　individuals　are　no　less　apt　to　retire　from　a　political　career　in　which　it　is　almost　impossible　to　retain　their　independence；　or　to　advance　without　degrading　themselves。　　This　opinion　has　been　very　candidly　set　forth　by　Chancellor　Kent；　who　says；　in　speaking　with　great　eulogiums　of　that　part　of　the　Constitution　which　empowers　the　Executive　to　nominate　the　judges：　〃It　is　indeed　probable　that　the　men　who　are　best　fitted　to　discharge　the　duties　of　this　high　office　would　have　too　much　reserve　in　their　manners；　and　too　much　austerity　in　their　principles；　for　them　to　be　returned　by　the　majority　at　an　election　where　universal　suffrage　is　adopted。〃　Such　were　the　opinions　which　were　printed　without　contradiction　in　America　in　the　year　1830！

I　hold　it　to　be　sufficiently　demonstrated　that　universal　suffrage　is　by　no　means　a　guarantee　of　the　wisdom　of　the　popular　choice；　and　that；　whatever　its　advantages　may　be；　this　is　not　one　of　them。


Causes　Which　May　Partly　Correct　These　Tendencies　Of　The　Democracy　　Contrary　effects　produced　on　peoples　as　well　as　on　individuals　by　great　dangers　…　Why　so　many　distinguished　men　stood　at　the　head　of　affairs　in　America　fifty　years　ago　…　Influence　which　the　intelligence　and　the　manners　of　the　people　exercise　upon　its　choice　…　Example　of　New　England　…　States　of　the　Southwest　…　Influence　of　certain　laws　upon　the　choice　of　th