democracy in america-1-第62章

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t　those　which　already　existed　were　forgotten；　and　as　the　general　attention　was　diverted　to　a　novel　object；　the　care　which　had　hitherto　been　bestowed　upon　the　others　ceased。　　The　salutary　regulations　of　discipline　were　first　relaxed；　and　afterwards　broken；　so　that　in　the　immediate　neighborhood　of　a　prison　which　bore　witness　to　the　mild　and　enlightened　spirit　of　our　time；　dungeons　might　be　met　with　which　reminded　the　visitor　of　the　barbarity　of　the　Middle　Ages。


Chapter　XV：　Unlimited　Power　Of　Majority；　And　Its　Consequences　…　Part　II

Tyranny　Of　The　Majority

How　the　principle　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　people　is　to　be　understood　…Impossibility　of　conceiving　a　mixed　government　…　The　sovereign　power　must　centre　somewhere　…　Precautions　to　be　taken　to　control　its　action　…　These　precautions　have　not　been　taken　in　the　United　States　…　Consequences。

I　hold　it　to　be　an　impious　and　an　execrable　maxim　that；　politically　speaking；　a　people　has　a　right　to　do　whatsoever　it　pleases；　and　yet　I　have　asserted　that　all　authority　originates　in　the　will　of　the　majority。　　Am　I　then；　in　contradiction　with　myself？　

A　general　law　…　which　bears　the　name　of　Justice　…　has　been　made　and　sanctioned；　not　only　by　a　majority　of　this　or　that　people；　but　by　a　majority　of　mankind。　　The　rights　of　every　people　are　consequently　confined　within　the　limits　of　what　is　just。　　A　nation　may　be　considered　in　the　light　of　a　jury　which　is　empowered　to　represent　society　at　large；　and　to　apply　the　great　and　general　law　of　justice。　　Ought　such　a　jury；　which　represents　society；　to　have　more　power　than　the　society　in　which　the　laws　it　applies　originate？　

When　I　refuse　to　obey　an　unjust　law；　I　do　not　contest　the　right　which　the　majority　has　of　commanding；　but　I　simply　appeal　from　the　sovereignty　of　the　people　to　the　sovereignty　of　mankind。　　It　has　been　asserted　that　a　people　can　never　entirely　outstep　the　boundaries　of　justice　and　of　reason　in　those　affairs　which　are　more　peculiarly　its　own；　and　that　consequently；　full　power　may　fearlessly　be　given　to　the　majority　by　which　it　is　represented。　　But　this　language　is　that　of　a　slave。

A　majority　taken　collectively　may　be　regarded　as　a　being　whose　opinions；　and　most　frequently　whose　interests；　are　opposed　to　those　of　another　being；　which　is　styled　a　minority。　　If　it　be　admitted　that　a　man；　possessing　absolute　power；　may　misuse　that　power　by　wronging　his　adversaries；　why　should　a　majority　not　be　liable　to　the　same　reproach？　　Men　are　not　apt　to　change　their　characters　by　agglomeration；　nor　does　their　patience　in　the　presence　of　obstacles　increase　with　the　consciousness　of　their　strength。　*c　And　for　these　reasons　I　can　never　willingly　invest　any　number　of　my　fellow…　creatures　with　that　unlimited　authority　which　I　should　refuse　to　any　one　of　them。

＇Footnote　c：　No　one　will　assert　that　a　people　cannot　forcibly　wrong　another　people；　but　parties　may　be　looked　upon　as　lesser　nations　within　a　greater　one；　and　they　are　aliens　to　each　other：　if；　therefore；　it　be　admitted　that　a　nation　can　act　tyrannically　towards　another　nation；　it　cannot　be　denied　that　a　party　may　do　the　same　towards　another　party。＇

I　do　not　think　that　it　is　possible　to　combine　several　principles　in　the　same　government；　so　as　at　the　same　time　to　maintain　freedom；　and　really　to　oppose　them　to　one　another。　　The　form　of　government　which　is　usually　termed　mixed　has　always　appeared　to　me　to　be　a　mere　chimera。　　Accurately　speaking　there　is　no　such　thing　as　a　mixed　government　（with　the　meaning　usually　given　to　that　word）；　because　in　all　communities　some　one　principle　of　action　may　be　discovered　which　preponderates　over　the　others。　　England　in　the　last　century；　which　has　been　more　especially　cited　as　an　example　of　this　form　of　Government；　was　in　point　of　fact　an　essentially　aristocratic　State；　although　it　comprised　very　powerful　elements　of　democracy；　for　the　laws　and　customs　of　the　country　were　such　that　the　aristocracy　could　not　but　preponderate　in　the　end；　and　subject　the　direction　of　public　affairs　to　its　own　will。　　The　error　arose　from　too　much　attention　being　paid　to　the　actual　struggle　which　was　going　on　between　the　nobles　and　the　people；　without　considering　the　probable　issue　of　the　contest；　which　was　in　reality　the　important　point。　When　a　community　really　has　a　mixed　government；　that　is　to　say；　when　it　is　equally　divided　between　two　adverse　principles；　it　must　either　pass　through　a　revolution　or　fall　into　complete　dissolution。

I　am　therefore　of　opinion　that　some　one　social　power　must　always　be　made　to　predominate　over　the　others；　but　I　think　that　liberty　is　endangered　when　this　power　is　checked　by　no　obstacles　which　may　retard　its　course；　and　force　it　to　moderate　its　own　vehemence。

Unlimited　power　is　in　itself　a　bad　and　dangerous　thing；　human　beings　are　not　competent　to　exercise　it　with　discretion；　and　God　alone　can　be　omnipotent；　because　His　wisdom　and　His　justice　are　always　equal　to　His　power。　But　no　power　upon　earth　is　so　worthy　of　honor　for　itself；　or　of　reverential　obedience　to　the　rights　which　it　represents；　that　I　would　consent　to　admit　its　uncontrolled　and　all…predominant　authority。　　When　I　see　that　the　right　and　the　means　of　absolute　command　are　conferred　on　a　people　or　upon　a　king；　upon　an　aristocracy　or　a　democracy；　a　monarchy　or　a　republic；　I　recognize　the　germ　of　tyranny；　and　I　journey　onward　to　a　land　of　more　hopeful　institutions。

In　my　opinion　the　main　evil　of　the　present　democratic　institutions　of　the　United　States　does　not　arise；　as　is　often　asserted　in　Europe；　from　their　weakness；　but　from　their　overpowering　strength；　and　I　am　not　so　much　alarmed　at　the　excessive　liberty　which　reigns　in　that　country　as　at　the　very　inadequate　securities　which　exist　against　tyranny。

When　an　individual　or　a　party　is　wronged　in　the　United　States；　to　whom　can　he　apply　for　redress？　　If　to　public　opinion；　public　opinion　constitutes　the　majority；　if　to　the　legislature；　it　represents　the　majority；　and　implicitly　obeys　its　injunctions；　if　to　the　executive　power；　it　is　appointed　by　the　majority；　and　remains　a　passive　tool　in　its　hands；　the　public　troops　consist　of　the　majority　under　arms；　the　jury　is　the　majority　invested　with　the　right　of　hearing　judicial　cases；　and　in　certain　States　even　the　judges　are　elected　by　the　majority。　　However　iniquitous　or　absurd　the　evil　of　which　you　complain　may　be；　you　must　submit　to　it　as　well　as　you　can。　*d

＇Footnote　d：　A　striking　instance　of　the　excesses　which　may　be　occasioned　by　the　despotism　of　the　majority　occurred　at　Baltimore　in　the　year　1812。　　At　that　time　the　war　was　very　popular　in　Baltimore。　　A　journal　which　had　taken　the　other　side　of　the　question　excited　the　indignation　of　the　inhabitants　by　its　opposition。　　The　populace　assembled；　broke　the　printing…presses；　and　attacked　the　houses　of　the　newspaper　editors。　　The　militia　was　called　out；　but　no　one　obeyed　the　call；　and　the　only　means　of　saving　the　poor　wretches　who　were　threatened　by　the　frenzy　of　the　mob　was　to　throw　them　into　prison　as　common　malefactors。　　But　even　this　precaution　was　ineffectual；　the　mob　collected　again　during　the　night；　the　magistrates　again　made　a　vain　attempt　to　call　out　the　militia；　the　prison　was　forced；　one　of　the　newspaper　editors　was　killed　upon　the　spot；　and　the　others　were　left　for　dead；　the　guilty　parties　were　acquitted　by　the　jury　when　they　were　brought　to　trial。　

I　said　one　day　to　an　inhabitant　of　Pennsylvania；　〃Be　so　good　as　to　explain　to　me　how　it　happens　that　in　a　State　founded　by　Quakers；　and　celebrated　for　its　toleration；　freed　blacks　are　not　allowed　to　exercise　civil　rights。　　They　pay　the　taxes；　is　it　not　fair　that　they　should　have　a　vote？〃

〃You　insult　us；〃　replied　my　informant；　〃if　you　imagine　that　our　legislators　could　have　committed　so　gross　an　act　of　injustice　and　intolerance。〃

〃What！　　then　the　blacks　possess　the　right　of　voting　in　this　county？〃

〃Without　the　smallest　doubt。〃

〃How　comes　it；　then；　that　at　the　polling…booth　this　morning　I　did　not　perceive　a　single　negro　in　the　whole　meeting？〃

〃This　is　not　the　fault　of　the　law：　the　negroes　have　an　undisputed　right　of　voting；　but　they　voluntarily　abstain　from　making　their　appearance。〃

〃A　very　pretty　piece　of　modesty　on　their　parts！〃　rejoined　I。　

〃Why；　the　truth　is；　that　they　are　not　disinclined　to　vote；　but　they　are　afraid　of　being　maltreated；　in　this　country　the　law　is　sometimes　unable　to　maintain　its　authority　without　the　support　of　the　majority。　　But　in　this　case　the　majority　entertains　very　strong　prejudices　against　the　blacks；　and　the　magistrates　are　unable　to　protect　them　in　the　exercise　of　their　legal　privileges。〃

〃What！　　then　the　majority　claims　the　right　not　only　of　making　the　laws；　but　of　breaking　the　laws　it　has　made？〃＇

If；　on　the　other　hand；　a　legislative　power　could　be　so　constituted　as　to　represent　the　majority　without　necessarily　being　the　slave　of　its　passions；　an　executive；　so　as　to　retain　a　certain　degree　of　uncontrolled　authority；　and　a　judiciary；　so　as　to　remain　independent　of　the　two　other　powers；　a　government　would　be　formed　which　would　still　be　democratic　without　incurring　any　risk　of　tyrannical　abuse。

I　do　not　say　that　tyrannical　abuses　frequently　occur　in　America　at　the　present　day；　but　I　maintain　that　no　sure　barrier　is　established　against　them；　and　that　the　causes　which　mitigate　the　government　are　to　be　found　in　the　circumstances　and　the　manners　of　the　country　more　than　in　its　laws。

Effects　Of　The　Unlimited　Power　Of　The　Majority　Upon　The　Arbitrary　Authority　Of　The　American　Public　Officers

Liberty　left　by　the　American　laws　to　public　officers　within　a　certain　sphere　…Their　power。


A　distinction　must　be　drawn　between　tyranny　and　arbitrary　power。　Tyranny　may　be　exercised　by　means　of　the　law；　and　in　that　case　it　is　not　arbitrary；　arbitrary　power　may　be　exercised　for　the　good　of　the　community　at　large；　in　which　case　it　is　not　tyrannical。　　Tyranny　usually　employs　arbitrary　means；　but；　if　necessary；　it　can　rule　without　them。

In　the　United　States　the　unbounded　power　of　the　majority；　which　is　favorable　to　the　legal　despotism　of　the　legislature；　is　likewise　favorable　to　the　arbitrary　authority　of　the　magistrate。　　The　majority　has　an　entire　control　over　the　law　when　it　is　made　and　when　it　is　executed；　and　as　it　possesses　an　equal　authority　over　those　who　are　in　power　and　the　community　at　large；　it　considers　public　officers　as　its　passive　agents；　and　readily　confides　the　task　of　serving　its　designs　to　their　vigilance。　　The　details　of　their　office　and　the　privileges　which　they　are　to　enjoy　are　rarely　defined　beforehand；　but　the　majority　treats　them　as　a　master　does　his　servants　when　they　are　always　at　work　in　his　sight；　and　he　has　the　power　of　directing　or　reprimanding　them　at　every　instant。　

In　general　the　American　functionaries　are　far　more　independent　than　the　French　civil　officers　within　the　sphere　which　is　prescribed　to　them。　Sometimes；　even；　they　are　allowed　by　the　popular　authority　to　exceed　those　bounds；　and　as　they　are　protected　by　the　opinion；　and　backed　by　the　co…operation；　of　the　majority；　they　venture　upon　such　manifestations　of　their　power　as　astonish　a　European。　　By　this　means　habits　are　formed　in　the　heart　of　a　free　country　which　may　some　day　prove　fatal　to　its　liberties。

Power　Exercised　By　The　Majority　In　Ame