democracy in america-1-第66章

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d　have　been　done；　the　former　produce　precedents；　the　latter　reasons。　A　French　observer　is　surprised　to　hear　how　often　an　English　dr　an　American　lawyer　quotes　the　opinions　of　others；　and　how　little　he　alludes　to　his　own；　whilst　the　reverse　occurs　in　France。　　There　the　most　trifling　litigation　is　never　conducted　without　the　introduction　of　an　entire　system　of　ideas　peculiar　to　the　counsel　employed；　and　the　fundamental　principles　of　law　are　discussed　in　order　to　obtain　a　perch　of　land　by　the　decision　of　the　court。　This　abnegation　of　his　own　opinion；　and　this　implicit　deference　to　the　opinion　of　his　forefathers；　which　are　common　to　the　English　and　American　lawyer；　this　subjection　of　thought　which　he　is　obliged　to　profess；　necessarily　give　him　more　timid　habits　and　more　sluggish　inclinations　in　England　and　America　than　in　France。

The　French　codes　are　often　difficult　of　comprehension；　but　they　can　be　read　by　every　one；　nothing；　on　the　other　hand；　can　be　more　impenetrable　to　the　uninitiated　than　a　legislation　founded　upon　precedents。　　The　indispensable　want　of　legal　assistance　which　is　felt　in　England　and　in　the　United　States；　and　the　high　opinion　which　is　generally　entertained　of　the　ability　of　the　legal　profession；　tend　to　separate　it　more　and　more　from　the　people；　and　to　place　it　in　a　distinct　class。　　The　French　lawyer　is　simply　a　man　extensively　acquainted　with　the　statutes　of　his　country；　but　the　English　or　American　lawyer　resembles　the　hierophants　of　Egypt；　for；　like　them；　he　is　the　sole　interpreter　of　an　occult　science。　

The　station　which　lawyers　occupy　in　England　and　America　exercises　no　less　an　influence　upon　their　habits　and　their　opinions。　　The　English　aristocracy；　which　has　taken　care　to　attract　to　its　sphere　whatever　is　at　all　analogous　to　itself；　has　conferred　a　high　degree　of　importance　and　of　authority　upon　the　members　of　the　legal　profession。　　In　English　society　lawyers　do　not　occupy　the　first　rank；　but　they　are　contented　with　the　station　assigned　to　them；　they　constitute；　as　it　were；　the　younger　branch　of　the　English　aristocracy；　and　they　are　attached　to　their　elder　brothers；　although　they　do　not　enjoy　all　their　privileges。　　The　English　lawyers　consequently　mingle　the　taste　and　the　ideas　of　the　aristocratic　circles　in　which　they　move　with　the　aristocratic　interests　of　their　profession。

And　indeed　the　lawyer…like　character　which　I　am　endeavoring　to　depict　is　most　distinctly　to　be　met　with　in　England：　there　laws　are　esteemed　not　so　much　because　they　are　good　as　because　they　are　old；　and　if　it　be　necessary　to　modify　them　in　any　respect；　or　to　adapt　them　the　changes　which　time　operates　in　society；　recourse　is　had　to　the　most　inconceivable　contrivances　in　order　to　uphold　the　traditionary　fabric；　and　to　maintain　that　nothing　has　been　done　which　does　not　square　with　the　intentions　and　complete　the　labors　of　former　generations。　　The　very　individuals　who　conduct　these　changes　disclaim　all　intention　of　innovation；　and　they　had　rather　resort　to　absurd　expedients　than　plead　guilty　to　so　great　a　crime。　　This　spirit　appertains　more　especially　to　the　English　lawyers；　they　seem　indifferent　to　the　real　meaning　of　what　they　treat；　and　they　direct　all　their　attention　to　the　letter；　seeming　inclined　to　infringe　the　rules　of　common　sense　and　of　humanity　rather　than　to　swerve　one　title　from　the　law。　　The　English　legislation　may　be　compared　to　the　stock　of　an　old　tree；　upon　which　lawyers　have　engrafted　the　most　various　shoots；　with　the　hope　that；　although　their　fruits　may　differ；　their　foliage　at　least　will　be　confounded　with　the　venerable　trunk　which　supports　them　all。

In　America　there　are　no　nobles　or　men　of　letters；　and　the　people　is　apt　to　mistrust　the　wealthy；　lawyers　consequently　form　the　highest　political　class；　and　the　most　cultivated　circle　of　society。　　They　have　therefore　nothing　to　gain　by　innovation；　which　adds　a　conservative　interest　to　their　natural　taste　for　public　order。　　If　I　were　asked　where　I　place　the　American　aristocracy；　I　should　reply　without　hesitation　that　it　is　not　composed　of　the　rich；　who　are　united　together　by　no　common　tie；　but　that　it　occupies　the　judicial　bench　and　the　bar。

The　more　we　reflect　upon　all　that　occurs　in　the　United　States　the　more　shall　we　be　persuaded　that　the　lawyers　as　a　body　form　the　most　powerful；　if　not　the　only；　counterpoise　to　the　democratic　element。　　In　that　country　we　perceive　how　eminently　the　legal　profession　is　qualified　by　its　powers；　and　even　by　its　defects；　to　neutralize　the　vices　which　are　inherent　in　popular　government。　　When　the　American　people　is　intoxicated　by　passion；　or　carried　away　by　the　impetuosity　of　its　ideas；　it　is　checked　and　stopped　by　the　almost　invisible　influence　of　its　legal　counsellors；　who　secretly　oppose　their　aristocratic　propensities　to　its　democratic　instincts；　their　superstitious　attachment　to　what　is　antique　to　its　love　of　novelty；　their　narrow　views　to　its　immense　designs；　and　their　habitual　procrastination　to　its　ardent　impatience。

The　courts　of　justice　are　the　most　visible　organs　by　which　the　legal　profession　is　enabled　to　control　the　democracy。　　The　judge　is　a　lawyer；　who；　independently　of　the　taste　for　regularity　and　order　which　he　has　contracted　in　the　study　of　legislation；　derives　an　additional　love　of　stability　from　his　own　inalienable　functions。　　His　legal　attainments　have　already　raised　him　to　a　distinguished　rank　amongst　his　fellow…citizens；　his　political　power　completes　the　distinction　of　his　station；　and　gives　him　the　inclinations　natural　to　privileged　classes。

Armed　with　the　power　of　declaring　the　laws　to　be　unconstitutional；　*a　the　American　magistrate　perpetually　interferes　in　political　affairs。　　He　cannot　force　the　people　to　make　laws；　but　at　least　he　can　oblige　it　not　to　disobey　its　own　enactments；　or　to　act　inconsistently　with　its　own　principles。　　I　am　aware　that　a　secret　tendency　to　diminish　the　judicial　power　exists　in　the　United　States；　and　by　most　of　the　constitutions　of　the　several　States　the　Government　can；　upon　the　demand　of　the　two　houses　of　the　legislature；　remove　the　judges　from　their　station。　　By　some　other　constitutions　the　members　of　the　tribunals　are　elected；　and　they　are　even　subjected　to　frequent　re…elections。　I　venture　to　predict　that　these　innovations　will　sooner　or　later　be　attended　with　fatal　consequences；　and　that　it　will　be　found　out　at　some　future　period　that　the　attack　which　is　made　upon　the　judicial　power　has　affected　the　democratic　republic　itself。

＇Footnote　a：　See　chapter　VI。　on　the　〃Judicial　Power　in　the　United　States。〃＇

It　must　not；　however；　be　supposed　that　the　legal　spirit　of　which　I　have　been　speaking　has　been　confined；　in　the　United　States；　to　the　courts　of　justice；　it　extends　far　beyond　them。　　As　the　lawyers　constitute　the　only　enlightened　class　which　the　people　does　not　mistrust；　they　are　naturally　called　upon　to　occupy　most　of　the　public　stations。　　They　fill　the　legislative　assemblies；　and　they　conduct　the　administration；　they　consequently　exercise　a　powerful　influence　upon　the　formation　of　the　law；　and　upon　its　execution。　The　lawyers　are；　however；　obliged　to　yield　to　the　current　of　public　opinion；　which　is　too　strong　for　them　to　resist　it；　but　it　is　easy　to　find　indications　of　what　their　conduct　would　be　if　they　were　free　to　act　as　they　chose。　　The　Americans；　who　have　made　such　copious　innovations　in　their　political　legislation；　have　introduced　very　sparing　alterations　in　their　civil　laws；　and　that　with　great　difficulty；　although　those　laws　are　frequently　repugnant　to　their　social　condition。　　The　reason　of　this　is；　that　in　matters　of　civil　law　the　majority　is　obliged　to　defer　to　the　authority　of　the　legal　profession；　and　that　the　American　lawyers　are　disinclined　to　innovate　when　they　are　left　to　their　own　choice。

It　is　curious　for　a　Frenchman；　accustomed　to　a　very　different　state　of　things；　to　hear　the　perpetual　complaints　which　are　made　in　the　United　States　against　the　stationary　propensities　of　legal　men；　and　their　prejudices　in　favor　of　existing　institutions。

The　influence　of　the　legal　habits　which　are　common　in　America　extends　beyond　the　limits　I　have　just　pointed　out。　　Scarcely　any　question　arises　in　the　United　States　which　does　not　become；　sooner　or　later；　a　subject　of　judicial　debate；　hence　all　parties　are　obliged　to　borrow　the　ideas；　and　even　the　language；　usual　in　judicial　proceedings　in　their　daily　controversies。　As　most　public　men　are；　or　have　been；　legal　practitioners；　they　introduce　the　customs　and　technicalities　of　their　profession　into　the　affairs　of　the　country。　　The　jury　extends　this　habitude　to　all　classes。　　The　language　of　the　law　thus　becomes；　in　some　measure；　a　vulgar　tongue；　the　spirit　of　the　law；　which　is　produced　in　the　schools　and　courts　of　justice；　gradually　penetrates　beyond　their　walls　into　the　bosom　of　society；　where　it　descends　to　the　lowest　classes；　so　that　the　whole　people　contracts　the　habits　and　the　tastes　of　the　magistrate。　　The　lawyers　of　the　United　States　form　a　party　which　is　but　little　feared　and　scarcely　perceived；　which　has　no　badge　peculiar　to　itself；　which　adapts　itself　with　great　flexibility　to　the　exigencies　of　the　time；　and　accommodates　itself　to　all　the　movements　of　the　social　body；　but　this　party　extends　over　the　whole　community；　and　it　penetrates　into　all　classes　of　society；　it　acts　upon　the　country　imperceptibly；　but　it　finally　fashions　it　to　suit　its　purposes。


Chapter　XVI：　Causes　Mitigating　Tyranny　In　The　United　States　…　Part　II

Trial　By　Jury　In　The　United　States　Considered　As　A　Political　Institution

Trial　by　jury；　which　is　one　of　the　instruments　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　people；　deserves　to　be　compared　with　the　other　laws　which　establish　that　sovereignty　…　Composition　of　the　jury　in　the　United　States　…　Effect　of　trial　by　jury　upon　the　national　character　…　It　educates　the　people　…　It　tends　to　establish　the　authority　of　the　magistrates　and　to　extend　a　knowledge　of　law　among　the　people。　

Since　I　have　been　led　by　my　subject　to　recur　to　the　administration　of　justice　in　the　United　States；　I　will　not　pass　over　this　point　without　adverting　to　the　institution　of　the　jury。　　Trial　by　jury　may　be　considered　in　two　separate　points　of　view；　as　a　judicial　and　as　a　political　institution。　If　it　entered　into　my　present　purpose　to　inquire　how　far　trial　by　jury　（more　especially　in　civil　cases）　contributes　to　insure　the　best　administration　of　justice；　I　admit　that　its　utility　might　be　contested。　　As　the　jury　was　first　introduced　at　a　time　when　society　was　in　an　uncivilized　state；　and　when　courts　of　justice　were　merely　called　upon　to　decide　on　the　evidence　of　facts；　it　is　not　an　easy　task　to　adapt　it　to　the　wants　of　a　highly　civilized　community　when　the　mutual　relations　of　men　are　multiplied　to　a　surprising　extent；　and　have　assumed　the　enlightened　and　intellectual　character　of　the　age。　*b

＇Footnote　b：　The　investigation　of　trial　by　jury　as　a　judicial　institution；　and　the　appreciation　of　its　effects　in　the　United　States；　together　with　the　advantages　the　Americans　have　derived　from　it；　would　suffice　to　form　a　book；　and　a　book　upon　a　very　useful　and　curious　subject。　　The　State　of　Louisiana　would　in　particular　afford　the　curious　phenomenon　of　a　French　and　English　legislation；　as　well　as　a　French　and　English　population；　which　are　gradually　combi