the crisis in russia(俄国危机)-第3章
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years she has been unable to import the necessary machinery for making
engines or repairing them。 Further； coal and oil have been； until recently；
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cut off by the civil war。 The coal mines are left； after the civil war； in
such a condition that no considerable output may be expected from them
in the near future。 Thus； even those engines which exist have had their
efficiency lessened by being adapted in a rough and ready manner for
burning wood fuel instead of that for which they were designed。
Let us now examine the combined effect of ruined transport and the
six years' blockade on Russian life in town and country。 First of all
was cut off the import of manufactured
goods from abroad。 That has had a cumulative effect completed； as it
were； and rounded off by the breakdown of transport。 By making it
impossible to bring food； fuel and raw material to the factories； the wreck
of transport makes it impossible for Russian industry to produce even that
modicum which it contributed to the general supply of manufactured
goods which the Russian peasant was accustomed to receive in exchange
for his production of food。 On the whole the peasant himself eats rather
more than he did before the war。 But he has no matches； no salt； no
clothes； no boots； no tools。 The Communists are trying to put an end to
illiteracy in Russia； and in the villages the most frequent excuse for
keeping children from school is a request to come and see them； when
they will be found； as I have seen them myself； playing naked about the
stove； without boots or anything but a shirt； if that； in which to go and
learn to read and write。 Clothes and such things as matches are； however；
of less vital importance than tools； the lack of which is steadily reducing
Russia's actual power of food production。 Before the war Russia needed
from abroad huge quantities of agricultural implements； not only machines；
but simple things like axes； sickles； scythes。 In 1915 her own production
of these things had fallen to 15。1 per cent。 of her already inadequate
peacetime output。 In 1917 it had fallen to 2。1 per cent。 The Soviet
Government is making efforts to raise it； and is planning new factories
exclusively for the making of these things。 But； with transport in such a
condition； a new factory means merely a new demand for material and
fuel which there are neither engines nor wagons to bring。 Meanwhile； all
over Russia； spades are worn out； men are plowing with burnt staves
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instead of with plowshares； scratching the surface of the ground； and
instead of harrowing with a steel…spiked harrow of some weight； are
brushing the ground with light constructions of wooden spikes bound
together with wattles。
The actual agricultural productive powers of Russia are consequently
sinking。 But things are no better if we turn from the rye and corn lands
to the forests。 Saws are worn out。 Axes are worn out。 Even apart
from that； the shortage of transport affects the production of wood fuel；
lack of which reacts on transport and on the factories and so on in a circle
from which nothing but a large import of engines and wagons will provide
an outlet。 Timber can be floated down
the rivers。 Yes； but it must be brought to the rivers。 Surely horses
can do that。 Yes； but； horses must be fed； and oats do not grow in the
forests。 For example； this spring （1920） the best organized timber
production was in Perm Government。 There sixteen thousand horses
have been mobilized for the work； but further development is impossible
for lack of forage。 A telegram bitterly reports； 〃Two trains of oats from
Ekaterinburg are expected day by day。 If the oats arrive in time a
considerable success will be possible。〃 And if the oats do not arrive in
time？ Besides； not horses alone require to be fed。 The men who cut the
wood cannot do it on empty stomachs。 And again rises a cry for trains；
that do not arrive； for food that exists somewhere； but not in the forest
where men work。 The general effect of the wreck of transport on food is
stated as follows： Less than 12 per cent。 of the oats required； less than 5
per cent。 of the bread and salt required for really efficient working； were
brought to the forests。 Nonetheless three times as much wood has been
prepared as the available transport has removed。
The towns suffer from lack of transport； and from the combined
effect on the country of their productive weakness and of the loss of their
old position as centres through which the country received its imports
from abroad。 Townsfolk and factory workers lack food； fuel； raw
materials and much else that in a civilized State is considered a necessary
of life。 Thus； ten million poods of fish were caught last year； but there
were no means of bringing them from the fisheries to the great industrial
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centres where they were most needed。 Townsfolk are starving； and in
winter； cold。 People living in rooms in a flat； complete strangers to each
other； by general agreement bring all their beds into the kitchen。 In the
kitchen soup is made once a day。 There is a little warmth there beside the
natural warmth of several human beings in a small room。 There it is
possible to sleep。 During the whole of last winter； in the case I have in
mind； there were no means of heating the other rooms； where the
temperature was almost always far below freezing point。 It is difficult to
make the conditions real except by individual examples。 The lack of
medicines； due directly to the blockade； seems to have small effect on the
imagination when simply stated as such。 Perhaps people will realize
what it means when instead of talking of the wounded undergoing
operations
without anesthetics I record the case of an acquaintance； a Bolshevik；
working in a Government office； who suffered last summer from a slight
derangement of the stomach due to improper and inadequate feeding。 His
doctor prescribed a medicine； and nearly a dozen different apothecaries
were unable to make up the prescription for lack of one or several of the
simple ingredients required。 Soap has become an article so rare （in Russia
as in Germany during the blockade and the war there is a terrible absence
of fats） that for the present it is to be treated as a means of safeguarding
labor； to be given to the workmen for washing after and during their work；
and in preference to miners； chemical； medical and sanitary workers； for
whose efficiency and health it is essential。 The proper washing of
underclothes is impossible。 To induce the population of Moscow to go to
the baths during the typhus epidemic； it was sufficient bribe to promise
to each person beside the free bath a free scrap of soap。 Houses are
falling into disrepair for want of plaster； paint and tools。 Nor is it
possible to substitute one thing for another； for Russia's industries all
suffer alike from their dependence on the West； as well as from the
inadequacy of the transport to bring to factories the material they need。
People remind each other that during the war the Germans； when similarly
hard put to it for clothes； made paper dresses； table…cloths； etc。 In Russia
the nets used in paper…making are worn out。 At last； in April； 1920 （so
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Lenin told me）； there seemed to be a hope of getting new ones from
abroad。 But the condition of the paper industry is typical of all； in a
country which； it should not be forgotten； could be in a position to supply
wood…pulp for other countries besides itself。 The factories are able to
produce only sixty per cent。 of demands that have previously； by the
strictest scrutiny； been reduced to a minimum before they are made。 The
reasons； apart from the lack of nets and cloths； are summed up in absence
of food； forage and finally labor。 Even when wood is brought by river
the trouble is not yet overcome。 The horses are dead and eaten or starved
and weak。 Factories have to cease working so that the workmen；
themselves underfed； can drag the wood from the barges to the mills。 It
may well be imagined what the effect of hunger； cold； and the
disheartenment consequent on such conditions of work and the seeming
hopelessness of the position have on the productivity of labor； the fall in
which reacts on all the industries； on transport； on the general situation and
so again
on itself。
Mr。 J。 M。 Keynes； writing with Central Europe in his mind （he is； I
think； as ignorant of Russia as I am of Germany）； says： 〃What then is our
picture of Europe？ A country population able to support life on the fruits
of its own agricultural production； but without the accustomed surplus for
the towns； and also （as a result of the lack of imported materials； and so of
variety and amount in the salable manufactur
