the crowd-第14章
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； economy； improvement； or invention。 The young Frenchman is deprived； and precisely at the age when they are most fruitful； of all these precious contacts； of all these indispensable elements of assimilation。 For seven or eight years on end he is shut up in a school； and is cut off from that direct personal experience which would give him a keen and exact notion of men and things and of the various ways of handling them。〃
〃 。 。 。 At least nine out of ten have wasted their time and pains during several years of their lifetelling； important； even decisive years。 Among such are to be counted； first of all； the half or two…thirds of those who present themselves for examinationI refer to those who are rejected； and then among those who are successful； who obtain a degree； a certificate； a diploma； there is still a half or two…thirdsI refer to the overworked。 Too much has been demanded of them by exacting that on a given day； on a chair or before a board； they should； for two hours in succession； and with respect to a group of sciences； be living repertories of all human knowledge。 In point of fact they were that； or nearly so； for two hours on that particular day； but a month later they are so no longer。 They could not go through the examination again。 Their too numerous and too burdensome acquisitions slip incessantly from their mind； and are not replaced。 Their mental vigour has declined； their fertile capacity for growth has dried up； the fully…developed man appears； and he is often a used…up man。 Settled down； married； resigned to turning in a circle； and indefinitely in the same circle； he shuts himself up in his confined function； which he fulfils adequately； but nothing more。 Such is the average yield： assuredly the receipts do not balance the expenditure。 In England or America； where； as in France previous to 1789； the contrary proceeding is adopted； the outcome obtained is equal or superior。〃
The illustrious psychologist subsequently shows us the difference between our system and that of the Anglo…Saxons。 The latter do not possess our innumerable special schools。 With them instruction is not based on book…learning； but on object lessons。 The engineer； for example； is trained in a workshop； and never at a school； a method which allows of each individual reaching the level his intelligence permits of。 He becomes a workman or a foreman if he can get no further； an engineer if his aptitudes take him as far。 This manner of proceeding is much more democratic and of much greater benefit to society than that of making the whole career of an individual depend on an examination； lasting a few hours； and undergone at the age of nineteen or twenty。
〃In the hospital； the mine； the factory； in the architect's or the lawyer's office； the student； who makes a start while very young； goes through his apprenticeship； stage by stage； much as does with us a law clerk in his office； or an artist in his studio。 Previously； and before making a practical beginning； he has had an opportunity of following some general and summary course of instruction； so as to have a framework ready prepared in which to store the observations he is shortly to make。 Furthermore he is able； as a rule； to avail himself of sundry technical courses which he can follow in his leisure hours； so as to co…ordinate step by step the daily experience he is gathering。 Under such a system the practical capabilities increase and develop of themselves in exact proportion to the faculties of the student； and in the direction requisite for his future task and the special work for which from now onwards he desires to fit himself。 By this means in England or the United States a young man is quickly in a position to develop his capacity to the utmost。 At twenty…five years of age； and much sooner if the material and the parts are there； he is not merely a useful performer； he is capable also of spontaneous enterprise； he is not only a part of a machine； but also a motor。 In France； where the contrary system prevailsin France； which with each succeeding generation is falling more and more into line with Chinathe sum total of the wasted forces is enormous。〃
The great philosopher arrives at the following conclusion with respect to the growing incongruity between our Latin system of education and the requirements of practical life：
〃In the three stages of instruction； those of childhood； adolescence and youth； the theoretical and pedagogic preparation by books on the school benches has lengthened out and become overcharged in view of the examination； the degree； the diploma； and the certificate； and solely in this view； and by the worst methods； by the application of an unnatural and anti…social regime； by the excessive postponement of the practical apprenticeship； by our boarding…school system； by artificial training and mechanical cramming； by overwork； without thought for the time that is to follow； for the adult age and the functions of the man； without regard for the real world on which the young man will shortly be thrown； for the society in which we move and to which he must be adapted or be taught to resign himself in advance； for the struggle in which humanity is engaged； and in which to defend himself and to keep his footing he ought previously to have been equipped； armed； trained； and hardened。 This indispensable equipment； this acquisition of more importance than any other； this sturdy common sense and nerve and will…power our schools do not procure the young Frenchman； on the contrary； far from qualifying him for his approaching and definite state； they disqualify him。 In consequence； his entry into the world and his first steps in the field of action are most often merely a succession of painful falls； whose effect is that he long remains wounded and bruised； and sometimes disabled for life。 The test is severe and dangerous。 In the course of it the mental and moral equilibrium is affected； and runs the risk of not being re…established。 Too sudden and complete disillusion has supervened。 The deceptions have been too great； the disappointments too keen。〃＇12＇
＇12＇ Taine； 〃Le Regime moderne；〃 vol。 ii。； 1894。 These pages are almost the last that Taine wrote。 They resume admirably the results of the great philosopher's long experience。 Unfortunately they are in my opinion totally incomprehensible for such of our university professors who have not lived abroad。 Education is the only means at our disposal of influencing to some extent the mind of a nation； and it is profoundly saddening to have to think that there is scarcely any one in France who can arrive at understanding that our present system of teaching is a grave cause of rapid decadence； which instead of elevating our youth； lowers and perverts it。
A useful comparison may be made between Taine's pages and the observations on American education recently made by M。 Paul Bourget in his excellent book； 〃Outre…Mer。〃 He； too； after having noted that our education merely produces narrow…minded bourgeois； lacking in initiative and will…power； or anarchists〃those two equally harmful types of the civilised man； who degenerates into impotent platitude or insane destructiveness〃he too； I say； draws a comparison that cannot be the object of too much reflection between our French lycees （public schools）； those factories of degeneration； and the American schools； which prepare a man admirably for life。 The gulf existing between truly democratic nations and those who have democracy in their speeches； but in no wise in their thoughts； is clearly brought out in this comparison。
Have we digressed in what precedes from the psychology of crowds？ Assuredly not。 If we desire to understand the ideas and beliefs that are germinating to…day in the masses； and will spring up to…morrow； it is necessary to know how the ground has been prepared。 The instruction given the youth of a country allows of a knowledge of what that country will one day be。 The education accorded the present generation justifies the most gloomy previsions。 It is in part by instruction and education that the mind of the masses is improved or deteriorated。 It was necessary in consequence to show how this mind has been fashioned by the system in vogue； and how the mass of the indifferent and the neutral has become progressively an army of the discontented ready to obey all the suggestions of utopians and rhetoricians。 It is in the schoolroom that socialists and anarchists are found nowadays； and that the way is being paved for the approaching period of decadence for the Latin peoples。
CHAPTER II
THE IMMEDIATE FACTORS OF THE OPINIONS OF CROWDS
1。 IMAGES； WORDS AND FORMULAE。 The magical power of words and formulaeThe power of words bound up with the images they evoke； and independent of their real senseThese images vary from age to age； and from race to raceThe wear and tear of wordsExamples of the considerable variations of sense of much…used wordsThe political utility of baptizing old things with new names when the words by which they were designated produced an unfavourable impression on the masses variations of the sense of words in consequence of race differencesThe different meanings of the word 〃democracy〃 in Europe and America。 2。 ILLUSIONS。 Their importanceThey are to be found at the root of all civilisationsThe social necessity of illusionsCrowds always prefer them to truths。 3。 EXPERIENCE。 Experience alone can fix in the mind of crowds truths become necessary and destroy illusions grown dangerousExperience is only effective on the condition that it be frequently repeatedThe cost of the experiences requisite to persuade crowds。 4。 REASON。 The nullity of its influence on crowdsCrowds only to be influenced by their unconscious sentiments The role of logic in historyThe secret causes of improbable events。
We have just investigated the remote and preparatory factors which give the mind of crowds a special receptivity； and make possible therein the growth of certain sentiments and certain ideas。 It now remains for us to study the factors capable of acting in a direct manner。 We shall see in a forthcoming chapter how these factors should be put in force in order that they may produce their full effect。
In the first part of this work we studied the sentiments； ideas； and methods of reasoning of collective bodies； and from the knowledge thus acquired it would evidently be possible to deduce in a general way the means of making an impression on their mind。 We already know what strikes the imagination of crowds； and are acquainted with the power and contagiousness of suggestions； of those especially that are presented under the form of images。 However； as suggestions may proceed from very different sources； the factors capable of acting on the minds of crowds may differ considerably。 It is necessary； then； to study them separately。 This is not a useless study。 Crowds are somewhat like the sphinx of ancient fable： it is necessary to arrive at a solution of the problems offered by their psychology or to resign ourselves to being devoured by them。
1。 IMAGES； WORDS； AND FORMULAS
When studying the imagination of crowds we saw that it is particularly open to the impressions produced by images。 These im
