the crowd-第26章

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again　in　the　action　exerted　by　words　and　formulas；　whose　magical　sway　we　have　already　insisted　upon。　　An　orator　who　knows　how　to　make　use　of　these　means　of　persuasion　can　do　what　he　will　with　a　crowd。　　Expressions　such　as　infamous　capital；　vile　exploiters；　the　admirable　working　man；　the　socialisation　of　wealth；　&c。；　always　produce　the　same　effect；　although　already　somewhat　worn　by　use。　　But　the　candidate　who　hits　on　a　new　formula　as　devoid　as　possible　of　precise　meaning；　and　apt　in　consequence　to　flatter　the　most　varied　aspirations；　infallibly　obtains　a　success。　　The　sanguinary　Spanish　revolution　of　1873　was　brought　about　by　one　of　these　magical　phrases　of　complex　meaning　on　which　everybody　can　put　his　own　interpretation。　　A　contemporary　writer　has　described　the　launching　of　this　phrase　in　terms　that　deserve　to　be　quoted：


〃The　radicals　have　made　the　discovery　that　a　centralised　republic　is　a　monarchy　in　disguise；　and　to　humour　them　the　Cortes　had　unanimously　proclaimed　a　FEDERAL　REPUBLIC；　though　none　of　the　voters　could　have　explained　what　it　was　he　had　just　voted　for。　This　formula；　however；　delighted　everybody；　the　joy　was　intoxicating；　delirious。　　The　reign　of　virtue　and　happiness　had　just　been　inaugurated　on　earth。　　A　republican　whose　opponent　refused　him　the　title　of　federalist　considered　himself　to　be　mortally　insulted。　　People　addressed　each　other　in　the　streets　with　the　words：　　‘Long　live　the　federal　republic！'　　After　which　the　praises　were　sung　of　the　mystic　virtue　of　the　absence　of　discipline　in　the　army；　and　of　the　autonomy　of　the　soldiers。　What　was　understood　by　the　‘federal　republic？'　　There　were　those　who　took　it　to　mean　the　emancipation　of　the　provinces；　institutions　akin　to　those　of　the　United　States　and　administrative　decentralisation；　others　had　in　view　the　abolition　of　all　authority　and　the　speedy　commencement　of　the　great　social　liquidation。　　The　socialists　of　Barcelona　and　Andalusia　stood　out　for　the　absolute　sovereignty　of　the　communes；　they　proposed　to　endow　Spain　with　ten　thousand　independent　municipalities；　to　legislate　on　their　own　account；　and　their　creation　to　be　accompanied　by　the　suppression　of　the　police　and　the　army。　　In　the　southern　provinces　the　insurrection　was　soon　seen　to　spread　from　town　to　town　and　village　to　village。　　Directly　a　village　had　made　its　pronunciamento　its　first　care　was　to　destroy　the　telegraph　wires　and　the　railway　lines　so　as　to　cut　off　all　communication　with　its　neighbours　and　Madrid。　　The　sorriest　hamlet　was　determined　to　stand　on　its　own　bottom。　　Federation　had　given　place　to　cantonalism；　marked　by　massacres；　incendiarism；　and　every　description　of　brutality；　and　bloody　saturnalia　were　celebrated　throughout　the　length　and　breadth　of　the　land。〃


With　respect　to　the　influence　that　may　be　exerted　by　reasoning　on　the　minds　of　electors；　to　harbour　the　least　doubt　on　this　subject　can　only　be　the　result　of　never　having　read　the　reports　of　an　electioneering　meeting。　　In　such　a　gathering　affirmations；　invectives；　and　sometimes　blows　are　exchanged；　but　never　arguments。　　Should　silence　be　established　for　a　moment　it　is　because　some　one　present；　having　the　reputation　of　a　〃tough　customer；〃　has　announced　that　he　is　about　to　heckle　the　candidate　by　putting　him　one　of　those　embarrassing　questions　which　are　always　the　joy　of　the　audience。　　The　satisfaction；　however；　of　the　opposition　party　is　shortlived；　for　the　voice　of　the　questioner　is　soon　drowned　in　the　uproar　made　by　his　adversaries。　The　following　reports　of　public　meetings；　chosen　from　hundreds　of　similar　examples；　and　taken　from　the　daily　papers；　may　be　considered　as　typical：

〃One　of　the　organisers　of　the　meeting　having　asked　the　assembly　to　elect　a　president；　the　storm　bursts。　　The　anarchists　leap　on　to　the　platform　to　take　the　committee　table　by　storm。　　The　socialists　make　an　energetic　defence；　blows　are　exchanged；　and　each　party　accuses　the　other　of　being　spies　in　the　pay　of　the　Government；　&c。　。　。　。　　A　citizen　leaves　the　hall　with　a　black　eye。

〃The　committee　is　at　length　installed　as　best　it　may　be　in　the　midst　of　the　tumult；　and　the　right　to　speak　devolves　upon　‘Comrade'　X。

〃The　orator　starts　a　vigorous　attack　on　the　socialists；　who　interrupt　him　with　shouts　of　‘Idiot；　scoundrel；　blackguard！'　&c。；　epithets　to　which　Comrade　X。　replies　by　setting　forth　a　theory　according　to　which　the　socialists　are　‘idiots'　or　‘jokers。'〃

〃The　Allemanist　party　had　organised　yesterday　evening；　in　the　Hall　of　Commerce；　in　the　Rue　du　Faubourg…du…Temple；　a　great　meeting；　preliminary　to　the　workers'　fete　of　the　1st　of　May。　　The　watchword　of　the　meeting　was　‘Calm　and　Tranquillity！'

〃Comrade　G　alludes　to　the　socialists　as　‘idiots'　and　‘humbugs。'

〃At　these　words　there　is　an　exchange　of　invectives　and　orators　and　audience　come　to　blows。　　Chairs；　tables；　and　benches　are　converted　into　weapons；〃　&c。；　&c。


It　is　not　to　be　imagined　for　a　moment　that　this　description　of　discussion　is　peculiar　to　a　determined　class　of　electors　and　dependent　on　their　social　position。　　In　every　anonymous　assembly　whatever；　though　it　be　composed　exclusively　of　highly　educated　persons；　discussion　always　assumes　the　same　shape。　　I　have　shown　that　when　men　are　collected　in　a　crowd　there　is　a　tendency　towards　their　mental　levelling　at　work；　and　proof　of　this　is　to　be　found　at　every　turn。　　Take；　for　example；　the　following　extract　from　a　report　of　a　meeting　composed　exclusively　of　students；　which　I　borrow　from　the　Temps　of　13th　of　February；　1895：


〃The　tumult　only　increased　as　the　evening　went　on；　I　do　not　believe　that　a　single　orator　succeeded　in　uttering　two　sentences　without　being　interrupted。　　At　every　instant　there　came　shouts　from　this　or　that　direction　or　from　every　direction　at　once。　Applause　was　intermingled　with　hissing；　violent　discussions　were　in　progress　between　individual　members　of　the　audience；　sticks　were　brandished　threateningly；　others　beat　a　tattoo　on　the　floor；　and　the　interrupters　were　greeted　with　yells　of　‘Put　him　out！'　or　‘Let　him　speak！'

〃M。　C　lavished　such　epithets　as　odious　and　cowardly；　monstrous；　vile；　venal　and　vindictive；　on　the　Association；　which　he　declared　he　wanted　to　destroy；〃　&c。；　&c。


How；　it　may　be　asked；　can　an　elector　form　an　opinion　under　such　conditions？　　To　put　such　a　question　is　to　harbour　a　strange　delusion　as　to　the　measure　of　liberty　that　may　be　enjoyed　by　a　collectivity。　　Crowds　have　opinions　that　have　been　imposed　upon　them；　but　they　never　boast　reasoned　opinions。　　In　the　case　under　consideration　the　opinions　and　votes　of　the　electors　are　in　the　hands　of　the　election　committees；　whose　leading　spirits　are；　as　a　rule；　publicans；　their　influence　over　the　working　men；　to　whom　they　allow　credit；　being　great。　　〃Do　you　know　what　an　election　committee　is？〃　writes　M。　Scherer；　one　of　the　most　valiant　champions　of　present…day　democracy。　　〃It　is　neither　more　nor　less　than　the　corner…stone　of　our　institutions；　the　masterpiece　of　the　political　machine。　　France　is　governed　to…day　by　the　election　committees。〃＇26＇


＇26＇　Committees　under　whatever　name；　clubs；　syndicates；　&c。；　constitute　perhaps　the　most　redoubtable　danger　resulting　from　the　power　of　crowds。　　They　represent　in　reality　the　most　impersonal　and；　in　consequence；　the　most　oppressive　form　of　tyranny。　　The　leaders　who　direct　the　committees　being　supposed　to　speak　and　act　in　the　name　of　a　collectivity；　are　freed　from　all　responsibility；　and　are　in　a　position　to　do　just　as　they　choose。　　The　most　savage　tyrant　has　never　ventured　even　to　dream　of　such　proscriptions　as

those　ordained　by　the　committees　of　the　Revolution。　　Barras　has　declared　that　they　decimated　the　convention；　picking　off　its　members　at　their　pleasure。　　So　long　as　he　was　able　to　speak　in　their　name；　Robespierre　wielded　absolute　power。　　The　moment　this　frightful　dictator　separated　himself　from　them；　for　reasons　of　personal　pride；　he　was　lost。　　The　reign　of　crowds　is　the　reign　of　committees；　that　is；　of　the　leaders　of　crowds。　　A　severer　despotism　cannot　be　imagined。



To　exert　an　influence　over　them　is　not　difficult；　provided　the　candidate　be　in　himself　acceptable　and　possess　adequate　financial　resources。　　According　to　the　admissions　of　the　donors；　three　millions　of　francs　sufficed　to　secure　the　repeated　elections　of　General　Boulanger。

Such　is　the　psychology　of　electoral　crowds。　　It　is　identical　with　that　of　other　crowds：　neither　better　nor　worse。

In　consequence　I　draw　no　conclusion　against　universal　suffrage　from　what　precedes。　　Had　I　to　settle　its　fate；　I　should　preserve　it　as　it　is　for　practical　reasons；　which　are　to　be　deduced　in　point　of　fact　from　our　investigation　of　the　psychology　of　crowds。　On　this　account　I　shall　proceed　to　set　them　forth。

No　doubt　the　weak　side　of　universal　suffrage　is　too　obvious　to　be　overlooked。　　It　cannot　be　gainsaid　that　civilisation　has　been　the　work　of　a　small　minority　of　superior　intelligences　constituting　the　culminating　point　of　a　pyramid；　whose　stages；　widening　in　proportion　to　the　decrease　of　mental　power；　represent　the　masses　of　a　nation。　　The　greatness　of　a　civilisation　cannot　assuredly　depend　upon　the　votes　given　by　inferior　elements　boasting　solely　numerical　strength。　　Doubtless；　too；　the　votes　recorded　by　crowds　are　often　very　dangerous。　　They　have　already　cost　us　several　invasions；　and　in　view　of　the　triumph　of　socialism；　for　which　they　are　preparing　the　way；　it　is　probable　that　the　vagaries　of　popular　sovereignty　will　cost　us　still　more　dearly。

Excellent；　however；　as　these　objections　are　in　theory；　in　practice　they　lose　all　force；　as　will　be　admitted　if　the　invincible　strength　be　remembered　of　ideas　transformed　into　dogmas。　　The　dogma　of　the　sovereignty　of　crowds　is　as　little　defensible；　from　the　philosophical　point　of　view；　as　the　religious　dogmas　of　the　Middle　Ages；　but　it　enjoys　at　present　the　same　absolute　power　they　formerly　enjoyed。　　It　is　as　unattackable　in　consequence　as　in　the　past　were　our　religious　ideas。　　Imagine　a　modern　freethinker　miraculously　transported　into　the　midst　of　the　Middle　Ages。　　Do　you　suppose　that；　after　having　ascertained　the　sovereign　power　of　the　religious　ideas　that　were　then　in　force；　he　would　have　been　tempted　to　attack　them？　　Having　fallen　into　the　hands　of　a　judge　disposed　to　send　him　to　the　stake；　under　the　imputation　of　having　concluded　a　pact　with　the　devil；　or　of　having　been　present　at　the　witches　sabbath；　would　it　have　occurred　to　him　to　call　in　question　the　existence　of　the　devil　or　of　the　sabbath？　　It　were　as　wise　to　oppose　cyclones　with　discussion　as　the　beliefs　of　crowds。　　The　dogma　of　universal　suffrage　possesses　to…day　the　power　the　Christian　dogmas　formerly　possessed。　　Orators　and　writers　allude　to　it　with　a　respect　and　adulation　that　never　fell　to　the　share　of　Louis　XIV。　　In　consequence　the　same　position　must　be　taken　up　with　regard　to　it　as　with　regard　to　all　religious　dogmas。　　Time　alone　can　act　upon　them。

Besides；　it　would　be　the　more　useless　to　attempt　to　undermine　this　dogma；　inasmuch　as　it　has　an　appearance　of　reasonableness　in　its　favour。　　〃In　an　era　of　equality；〃　Tocqueville　justly　remarks；　〃men　have　no　faith　in　each　other　on　account　of　their　being　all　alike；　yet　this　same　similitude　gives　them　an　almost　limitless　confidence　in　the　judgment　of　the　public；　the　reason　being　that　it　does