the black death and the dancing mania-第12章

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The　agreement　of　contemporary　and　later　writers　shows　that　the　published　views　of　the　most　celebrated　physicians　of　the　fourteenth　century　were　those　generally　adopted。　　Among　these；　Chalin　de　Vinario　is　the　most　experienced。　　Though　devoted　to　astrology　still　more　than　his　distinguished　contemporary；　he　acknowledges　the　great　power　of　terrestrial　influences；　and　expresses　himself　very　sensibly　on　the　indisputable　doctrine　of　contagion；　endeavouring　thereby　to　apologise　for　many　surgeons　and　physicians　of　his　time　who　neglected　their　duty。　　He　asserted　boldly　and　with　truth；　〃that　all　epidemic　diseases　might　become　contagious；　and　all　fevers　epidemic；〃　which　attentive　observers　of　all　subsequent　ages　have　confirmed。

He　delivered　his　sentiments　on　blood…letting　with　sagacity；　as　an　experienced　physician；　yet　he　was　unable；　as　may　be　imagined；　to　moderate　the　desire　for　bleeding　shown　by　the　ignorant　monks。　　He　was　averse　to　draw　blood　from　the　veins　of　patients　under　fourteen　years　of　age；　but　counteracted　inflammatory　excitement　in　them　by　cupping；　and　endeavoured　to　moderate　the　inflammation　of　the　tumid　glands　by　leeches。　　Most　of　those　who　were　bled；　died；　he　therefore　reserved　this　remedy　for　the　plethoric；　especially　for　the　papal　courtiers　and　the　hypocritical　priests；　whom　he　saw　gratifying　their　sensual　desires；　and　imitating　Epicurus；　whilst　they　pompously　pretended　to　follow　Christ。　　He　recommended　burning　the　boils　with　a　red…hot　iron　only　in　the　plague　without　fever；　which　occurred　in　single　cases；　and　was　always　ready　to　correct　those　over…hasty　surgeons　who；　with　fire　and　violent　remedies；　did　irremediable　injury　to　their　patients。　　Michael　Savonarola；　professor　in　Ferrara　（1462）；　reasoning　on　the　susceptibility　of　the　human　frame　to　the　influence　of　pestilential　infection；　as　the　cause　of　such　various　modifications　of　disease；　expresses　himself　as　a　modern　physician　would　on　this　point；　and　an　adoption　of　the　principle　of　contagion　was　the　foundation　of　his　definition　of　the　plague。　　No　less　worthy　of　observation　are　the　views　of　the　celebrated　Valescus　of　Taranta；　who；　during　the　final　visitation　of　the　Black　Death；　in　1382；　practised　as　a　physician　at　Montpellier；　and　handed　down　to　posterity　what　has　been　repeated　in　innumerable　treatises　on　plague；　which　were　written　during　the　fifteenth　and　sixteenth　centuries。

Of　all　these　notions　and　views　regarding　the　plague；　whose　development　we　have　represented；　there　are　two　especially；　which　are　prominent　in　historical　importance：…　1st；　The　opinion　of　learned　physicians；　that　the　pestilence；　or　epidemic　constitution；　is　the　parent　of　various　kinds　of　disease；　that　the　plague　sometimes；　indeed；　but　by　no　means　always；　originates　from　it：　that；　to　speak　in　the　language　of　the　moderns；　the　pestilence　bears　the　same　relation　to　contagion　that　a　predisposing　cause　does　to　an　occasional　cause；　and　2ndly；　the　universal　conviction　of　the　contagious　power　of　that　disease。

Contagion　gradually　attracted　more　notice：　　it　was　thought　that　in　it　the　most　powerful　occasional　cause　might　be　avoided；　the　possibility　of　protecting　whole　cities　by　separation　became　gradually　more　evident；　and　so　horrifying　was　the　recollection　of　the　eventful　year　of　the　〃Great　Mortality；〃　that　before　the　close　of　the　fourteenth　century；　ere　the　ill　effects　of　the　Black　Plague　had　ceased；　nations　endeavoured　to　guard　against　the　return　of　this　enemy　by　an　earnest　and　effectual　defence。

The　first　regulation　which　was　issued　for　this　purpose；　originated　with　Viscount　Bernabo；　and　is　dated　the　17th　January；　1374。　〃Every　plague…patient　was　to　be　taken　out　of　the　city　into　the　fields；　there　to　die　or　to　recover。　　Those　who　attended　upon　a　plague…patient；　were　to　remain　apart　for　ten　days　before　they　again　associated　with　anybody。　　The　priests　were　to　examine　the　diseased；　and　point　out　to　special　commissioners　the　persons　infected；　under　punishment　of　the　confiscation　of　their　goods　and　of　being　burned　alive。　　Whoever　imported　the　plague；　the　state　condemned　his　goods　to　confiscation。　　Finally；　none　except　those　who　were　appointed　for　that　purpose　were　to　attend　plague…　patients；　under　penalty　of　death　and　confiscation。

These　orders；　in　correspondence　with　the　spirit　of　the　fourteenth　century；　are　sufficiently　decided　to　indicate　a　recollection　of　the　good　effects　of　confinement；　and　of　keeping　at　a　distance　those　suspected　of　having　plague。　　It　was　said　that　Milan　itself；　by　a　rigorous　barricade　of　three　houses　in　which　the　plague　had　broken　out；　maintained　itself　free　from　the　〃Great　Mortality〃　for　a　considerable　time；　and　examples　of　the　preservation　of　individual　families；　by　means　of　a　strict　separation；　were　certainly　very　frequent。　　That　these　orders　must　have　caused　universal　affliction　from　their　uncommon　severity；　as　we　know　to　have　been　especially　the　case　in　the　city　of　Reggio；　may　be　easily　conceived；　but　Bernabo　did　not　suffer　himself　to　be　deterred　from　his　purpose　by　fearon　the　contrary；　when　the　plague　returned　in　the　year　1383；　he　forbade　the　admission　of　people　from　infected　places　into　his　territories　on　pain　of　death。　　We　have　now；　it　is　true；　no　account　how　far　he　succeeded；　yet　it　is　to　be　supposed　that　he　arrested　the　disease；　for　it　had　long　lost　the　property　of　the　Black　Death；　to　spread　abroad　in　the　air　the　contagious　matter　which　proceeded　from　the　lungs；　charged　with　putridity；　and　to　taint　the　atmosphere　of　whole　cities　by　the　vast　numbers　of　the　sick。　　Now　that　it　had　resumed　its　milder　form；　so　that　it　infected　only　by　contact；　it　admitted　being　confined　within　individual　dwellings；　as　easily　as　in　modern　times。

Bernabo's　example　was　imitated；　nor　was　there　any　century　more　appropriate　for　recommending　to　governments　strong　regulations　against　the　plague　that　the　fourteenth；　for　when　it　broke　out　in　Italy；　in　the　year　1399；　and　still　demanded　new　victims；　it　was　for　the　sixteenth　time；　without　reckoning　frequent　visitations　of　measles　and　small…pox。　　In　this　same　year；　Viscount　John；　in　milder　terms　than　his　predecessor；　ordered　that　no　stranger　should　be　admitted　from　infected　places；　and　that　the　city　gates　should　be　strictly　guarded。　　Infected　houses　were　to　be　ventilated　for　at　least　eight　or　ten　days；　and　purified　from　noxious　vapours　by　fires；　and　by　fumigations　with　balsamic　and　aromatic　substances。　Straw；　rags；　and　the　like　were　to　be　burned；　and　the　bedsteads　which　had　been　used；　set　out　for　four　days　in　the　rain　or　the　sunshine；　so　that　by　means　of　the　one　or　the　other；　the　morbific　vapour　might　be　destroyed。　　No　one　was　to　venture　to　make　use　of　clothes　or　beds　out　of　infected　dwellings　unless　they　had　been　previously　washed　and　dried　either　at　the　fire　or　in　the　sun。　People　were；　likewise；　to　avoid；　as　long　as　possible；　occupying　houses　which　had　been　frequented　by　plague…patients。

We　cannot　precisely　perceive　in　these　an　advance　towards　general　regulations；　and　perhaps　people　were　convinced　of　the　insurmountable　impediments　which　opposed　the　separation　of　open　inland　countries；　where　bodies　of　people　connected　together　could　not　be　brought；　even　by　the　most　obdurate　severity；　to　renounce　the　habit　of　profitable　intercourse。

Doubtless　it　is　nature　which　has　done　the　most　to　banish　the　Oriental　plague　from　western　Europe；　where　the　increasing　cultivation　of　the　earth；　and　the　advancing　order　in　civilised　society；　have　prevented　it　from　remaining　domesticated；　which　it　most　probably　was　in　the　more　ancient　times。

In　the　fifteenth　century；　during　which　it　broke　out　seventeen　times　in　different　places　in　Europe；　it　was　of　the　more　consequence　to　oppose　a　barrier　to　its　entrance　from　Asia；　Africa；　and　Greece　（which　had　become　Turkish）；　for　it　would　have　been　difficult　for　it　to　maintain　itself　indigenously　any　longer。　Among　the　southern　commercial　states；　however；　which　were　called　on　to　make　the　greatest　exertions　to　this　end；　it　was　principally　Venice；　formerly　so　severely　attacked　by　the　Black　Plague；　that　put　the　necessary　restraint　upon　perilous　profits　of　the　merchant。　Until　towards　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century；　the　very　considerable　intercourse　with　the　East　was　free　and　unimpeded。　Ships　of　commercial　cities　had　often　brought　over　the　plague：　nay；　the　former　irruption　of　the　〃Great　Mortality〃　itself　had　been　occasioned　by　navigators。　　For；　as　in　the　latter　end　of　autumn；　1347；　four　ships　full　of　plague…patients　returned　from　the　Levant　to　Genoa；　the　disease　spread　itself　there　with　astonishing　rapidity。　　On　this　account；　in　the　following　year；　the　Genoese　forbade　the　entrance　of　suspected　ships　into　their　port。　　These　sailed　to　Pisa　and　other　cities　on　the　coast；　where　already　nature　had　made　such　mighty　preparations　for　the　reception　of　the　Black　Plague；　and　what　we　have　already　described　took　place　in　consequence。

In　the　year　1485；　when；　among　the　cities　of　northern　Italy；　Milan　especially　felt　the　scourge　of　the　plague；　a　special　Council　of　Health；　consisting　of　three　nobles；　was　established　at　Venice；　who　probably　tried　everything　in　their　power　to　prevent　the　entrance　of　this　disease；　and　gradually　called　into　activity　all　those　regulations　which　have　served　in　later　times　as　a　pattern　for　the　other　southern　states　of　Europe。　　Their　endeavours　were；　however；　not　crowned　with　complete　success；　on　which　account　their　powers　were　increased；　in　the　year　1504；　by　granting　them　the　right　of　life　and　death　over　those　who　violated　the　regulations。　　Bills　of　health　were　probably　first　introduced　in　the　year　1527；　during　a　fatal　plague　which　visited　Italy　for　five　years　（1525…30）；　and　called　forth　redoubled　caution。

The　first　lazarettos　were　established　upon　islands　at　some　distance　from　the　city；　seemingly　as　early　as　the　year　1485。　　Here　all　strangers　coming　from　places　where　the　existence　of　plague　was　suspected　were　detained。　　If　it　appeared　in　the　city　itself；　the　sick　were　despatched　with　their　families　to　what　was　called　the　Old　Lazaretto；　were　there　furnished　with　provisions　and　medicines；　and　when　they　were　cured；　were　detained；　together　with　all　those　who　had　had　intercourse　with　them；　still　forty　days　longer　in　the　New　Lazaretto；　situated　on　another　island。　　All　these　regulations　were　every　year　improved；　and　their　needful　rigour　was　increased；　so　that　from　the　year　1585　onwards；　no　appeal　was　allowed　from　the　sentence　of　the　Council　of　Health；　and　the　other　commercial　nations　gradually　came　to　the　support　of　the　Venetians；　by　adopting　corresponding　regulations。　　Bills　of　health；　however；　were　not　general　until　the　year　1665。

The　appointment　of　a　forty　days'　detention；　whence　quarantines　derive　their　name；　was　not　dictated　by　caprice；　but　probably　had　a　medical　origin；　which　is　derivable　in　part　from　the　doctrine　of　critical　days；　for　the　fortieth　day；　according　to　the　most　ancient　notions；　has　been　always　regarded　as　the　last　of　ardent　diseases；　and　the　limit　of　separation　between　these　and　those　which　are　chronic。　　It　was　the　custom　to　subject　lying…in　women　for　forty　days　to　a　more　exact　superintendence。　　There　was　a　good　deal　also　said　in　medical　works　of　forty…day　epochs　in　the　formation　of　the　foetus；　not　to　mention　that　the　alchemists　expected　more　durable　revolutions　in　forty　days；　which　period　they　called　the　philosophical