on liberty-第11章

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term；　being　at　once　inevitable　and　indispensable；　we　are　not　therefore



obliged　to　conclude　that　all　its　consequences　must　be　beneficial。



The　loss　of　so　important　an　aid　to　the　intelligent　and　living



apprehension　of　a　truth；　as　is　afforded　by　the　necessity　of　explaining



it　to；　or　defending　it　against；　opponents；　though　not　sufficient　to



outweigh；　is　no　trifling　drawback　from；　the　benefit　of　its　universal



recognition。　Where　this　advantage　can　no　longer　be　had；　I　confess　I



should　like　to　see　the　teachers　of　mankind　endeavouring　to　provide　a



substitute　for　it；　some　contrivance　for　making　the　difficulties　of　the



question　as　present　to　the　learner's　consciousness；　as　if　they　were



pressed　upon　him　by　a　dissentient　champion；　eager　for　his　conversion。



　　But　instead　of　seeking　contrivances　for　this　purpose；　they　have　lost



those　they　formerly　had。　The　Socratic　dialectics；　so　magnificently



exemplified　in　the　dialogues　of　Plato；　were　a　contrivance　of　this



description。　They　were　essentially　a　negative　discussion　of　the



great　question　of　philosophy　and　life；　directed　with　consummate



skill　to　the　purpose　of　convincing　any　one　who　had　merely　adopted



the　commonplaces　of　received　opinion　that　he　did　not　understand　the



subject…　that　he　as　yet　attached　no　definite　meaning　to　the　doctrines



he　professed；　in　order　that；　becoming　aware　of　his　ignorance；　he　might



be　put　in　the　way　to　obtain　a　stable　belief；　resting　on　a　clear



apprehension　both　of　the　meaning　of　doctrines　and　of　their　evidence。



The　school　disputations　of　the　Middle　Ages　had　a　somewhat　similar



object。　They　were　intended　to　make　sure　that　the　pupil　understood



his　own　opinion；　and　（by　necessary　correlation）　the　opinion　opposed　to



it；　and　could　enforce　the　grounds　of　the　one　and　confute　those　of



the　other。　These　last…mentioned　contests　had　indeed　the　incurable



defect；　that　the　premises　appealed　to　were　taken　from　authority；　not



from　reason；　and；　as　a　discipline　to　the　mind；　they　were　in　every



respect　inferior　to　the　powerful　dialectics　which　formed　the



intellects　of　the　〃Socratici　viri〃；　but　the　modern　mind　owes　far



more　to　both　than　it　is　generally　willing　to　admit；　and　the　present



modes　of　education　contain　nothing　which　in　the　smallest　degree



supplies　the　place　either　of　the　one　or　of　the　other。　A　person　who



derives　all　his　instruction　from　teachers　or　books；　even　if　he



escape　the　besetting　temptation　of　contenting　himself　with　cram；　is



under　no　compulsion　to　hear　both　sides；　accordingly　it　is　far　from　a



frequent　accomplishment；　even　among　thinkers；　to　know　both　sides；



and　the　weakest　part　of　what　everybody　says　in　defence　of　his



opinion　is　what　he　intends　as　a　reply　to　antagonists。



　　It　is　the　fashion　of　the　present　time　to　disparage　negative



logic…　that　which　points　out　weaknesses　in　theory　or　errors　in



practice；　without　establishing　positive　truths。　Such　negative



criticism　would　indeed　be　poor　enough　as　an　ultimate　result；　but　as



a　means　to　attaining　any　positive　knowledge　or　conviction　worthy　the



name；　it　cannot　be　valued　too　highly；　and　until　people　are　again



systematically　trained　to　it；　there　will　be　few　great　thinkers；　and



a　low　general　average　of　intellect；　in　any　but　the　mathematical　and



physical　departments　of　speculation。　On　any　other　subject　no　one's



opinions　deserve　the　name　of　knowledge；　except　so　far　as　he　has　either



had　forced　upon　him　by　others；　or　gone　through　of　himself；　the　same



mental　process　which　would　have　been　required　of　him　in　carrying　on　an



active　controversy　with　opponents。　That；　therefore；　which　when　absent；



it　is　so　indispensable；　but　so　difficult；　to　create；　how　worse　than



absurd　it　is　to　forego；　when　spontaneously　offering　itself！　If　there



are　any　persons　who　contest　a　received　opinion；　or　who　will　do　so　if



law　or　opinion　will　let　them；　let　us　thank　them　for　it；　open　our　minds



to　listen　to　them；　and　rejoice　that　there　is　some　one　to　do　for　us



what　we　otherwise　ought；　if　we　have　any　regard　for　either　the



certainty　or　the　vitality　of　our　convictions；　to　do　with　much



greater　labour　for　ourselves。







　　It　still　remains　to　speak　of　one　of　the　principal　causes　which



make　diversity　of　opinion　advantageous；　and　will　continue　to　do　so



until　mankind　shall　have　entered　a　stage　of　intellectual　advancement



which　at　present　seems　at　an　incalculable　distance。　We　have　hitherto



considered　only　two　possibilities：　that　the　received　opinion　may　be



false；　and　some　other　opinion；　consequently；　true；　or　that；　the



received　opinion　being　true；　a　conflict　with　the　opposite　error　is



essential　to　a　clear　apprehension　and　deep　feeling　of　its　truth。　But



there　is　a　commoner　case　than　either　of　these；　when　the　conflicting



doctrines；　instead　of　being　one　true　and　the　other　false；　share　the



truth　between　them；　and　the　nonconforming　opinion　is　needed　to



supply　the　remainder　of　the　truth；　of　which　the　received　doctrine



embodies　only　a　part。　Popular　opinions；　on　subjects　not　palpable　to



sense；　are　often　true；　but　seldom　or　never　the　whole　truth。　They　are　a



part　of　the　truth；　sometimes　a　greater；　sometimes　a　smaller　part；



but　exaggerated；　distorted；　and　disjointed　from　the　truths　by　which



they　ought　to　be　accompanied　and　limited。　Heretical　opinions；　on　the



other　hand；　are　generally　some　of　these　suppressed　and　neglected



truths；　bursting　the　bonds　which　kept　them　down；　and　either　seeking



reconciliation　with　the　truth　contained　in　the　common　opinion；　or



fronting　it　as　enemies；　and　setting　themselves　up；　with　similar



exclusiveness；　as　the　whole　truth。　The　latter　case　is　hitherto　the



most　frequent；　as；　in　the　human　mind；　one…sidedness　has　always　been



the　rule；　and　many…sidedness　the　exception。　Hence；　even　in　revolutions



of　opinion；　one　part　of　the　truth　usually　sets　while　another　rises。



Even　progress；　which　ought　to　superadd；　for　the　most　part　only



substitutes；　one　partial　and　incomplete　truth　for　another；　improvement



consisting　chiefly　in　this；　that　the　new　fragment　of　truth　is　more



wanted；　more　adapted　to　the　needs　of　the　time；　than　that　which　it



displaces。　Such　being　the　partial　character　of　prevailing　opinions；



even　when　resting　on　a　true　foundation；　every　opinion　which　embodies



somewhat　of　the　portion　of　truth　which　the　common　opinion　omits；　ought



to　be　considered　precious；　with　whatever　amount　of　error　and　confusion



that　truth　may　be　blended。　No　sober　judge　of　human　affairs　will　feel



bound　to　be　indignant　because　those　who　force　on　our　notice　truths



which　we　should　otherwise　have　overlooked；　overlook　some　of　those



which　we　see。　Rather；　he　will　think　that　so　long　as　popular　truth　is



one…sided；　it　is　more　desirable　than　otherwise　that　unpopular　truth



should　have　one…sided　assertors　too；　such　being　usually　the　most



energetic；　and　the　most　likely　to　compel　reluctant　attention　to　the



fragment　of　wisdom　which　they　proclaim　as　if　it　were　the　whole。



　　Thus；　in　the　eighteenth　century；　when　nearly　all　the　instructed；　and



all　those　of　the　uninstructed　who　were　led　by　them；　were　lost　in



admiration　of　what　is　called　civilisation；　and　of　the　marvels　of



modern　science；　literature；　and　philosophy；　and　while　greatly



overrating　the　amount　of　unlikeness　between　the　men　of　modern　and



those　of　ancient　times；　indulged　the　belief　that　the　whole　of　the



difference　was　in　their　own　favour；　with　what　a　salutary　shock　did　the



paradoxes　of　Rousseau　explode　like　bombshells　in　the　midst；



dislocating　the　compact　mass　of　one…sided　opinion；　and　forcing　its



elements　to　recombine　in　a　better　form　and　with　additional



ingredients。　Not　that　the　current　opinions　were　on　the　whole　farther



from　the　truth　than　Rousseau's　were；　on　the　contrary；　they　were　nearer



to　it；　they　contained　more　of　positive　truth；　and　very　much　less　of



error。　Nevertheless　there　lay　in　Rousseau's　doctrine；　and　has



floated　down　the　stream　of　opinion　along　with　it；　a　considerable



amount　of　exactly　those　truths　which　the　popular　opinion　wanted；　and



these　are　the　deposit　which　was　left　behind　when　the　flood　subsided。



The　superior　worth　of　simplicity　of　life；　the　enervating　and



demoralising　effect　of　the　trammels　and　hypocrisies　of　artificial



society；　are　ideas　which　have　never　been　entirely　absent　from



cultivated　minds　since　Rousseau　wrote；　and　they　will　in　time　produce



their　due　effect；　though　at　present　needing　to　be　asserted　as　much



as　ever；　and　to　be　asserted　by　deeds；　for　words；　on　this　subject；　have



nearly　exhausted　their　power。



　　In　politics；　again；　it　is　almost　a　commonplace；　that　a　party　of



order　or　stability；　and　a　party　of　progress　or　reform；　are　both



necessary　elements　of　a　healthy　state　of　political　life；　until　the　one



or　the　other　shall　have　so　enlarged　its　mental　grasp　as　to　be　a



party　equally　of　order　and　of　progress；　knowing　and　distinguishing



what　is　fit　to　be　preserved　from　what　ought　to　be　swept　away。　Each



of　these　modes　of　thinking　derives　its　utility　from　the　deficiencies



of　the　other；　but　it　is　in　a　great　measure　the　opposition　of　the　other



that　keeps　each　within　the　limits　of　reason　and　sanity。　Unless



opinions　favourable　to　democracy　and　to　aristocracy；　to　property　and



to　equality；　to　cooperation　and　to　competition；　to　luxury　and　to



abstinence；　to　sociality　and　individuality；　to　liberty　and　discipline；



and　all　the　other　standing　antagonisms　of　practical　life；　are



expressed　with　equal　freedom；　and　enforced　and　defended　with　equal



talent　and　energy；　there　is　no　chance　of　both　elements　obtaining　their



due；　one　scale　is　sure　to　go　up；　and　the　other　down。　Truth；　in　the



great　practical　concerns　of　life；　is　so　much　a　question　of　the



reconciling　and　combining　of　opposites；　that　very　few　have　minds



sufficiently　capacious　and　impartial　to　make　the　adjustment　with　an



approach　to　correctness；　and　it　has　to　be　made　by　the　rough　process　of



a　struggle　between　combatants　fighting　under　hostile　banners。　On　any



of　the　great　open　questions　just　enumerated；　if　either　of　the　two



opinions　has　a　better　claim　than　the　other；　not　merely　to　be



tolerated；　but　to　be　encouraged　and　countenanced；　it　is　the　one



which　happens　at　the　particular　time　and　place　to　be　in　a　minority。



That　is　the　opinion　which；　for　the　time　being；　represents　the



neglected　interests；　the　side　of　human　well…being　which　is　in　danger



of　obtaining　less　than　its　share。　I　am　aware　that　there　is　not；　in



this　country；　any　intolerance　of　differences　of　opinion　on　most　of



these　topics。　They　are　adduced　to　show；　by　admitted　and　multiplied



examples；　the　universality　of　the　fact；　that　only　through　diversity　of



opinion　is　there；　in　the　existing　state　of　human　intellect；　a　chance



of　fair　play　to　all　sides　of　the　truth。　When　there　are　persons　to　be