manifesto of the communist party-第2章

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it　has　made　barbarian　and　semi…barbarian　countries　dependent　on

the　civilised　ones；　nations　of　peasants　on　nations　of　bourgeois；

the　East　on　the　West。



The　bourgeoisie　keeps　more　and　more　doing　away　with　the

scattered　state　of　the　population；　of　the　means　of　production；

and　of　property。　　It　has　agglomerated　production；　and　has

concentrated　property　in　a　few　hands。　　The　necessary　consequence

of　this　was　political　centralisation。　　Independent；　or　but

loosely　connected　provinces；　with　separate　interests；　laws；

governments　and　systems　of　taxation；　became　lumped　together　into

one　nation；　with　one　government；　one　code　of　laws；　one　national

class…interest；　one　frontier　and　one　customs…tariff。　　The

bourgeoisie；　during　its　rule　of　scarce　one　hundred　years；　has

created　more　massive　and　more　colossal　productive　forces　than

have　all　preceding　generations　together。　　Subjection　of　Nature's

forces　to　man；　machinery；　application　of　chemistry　to　industry

and　agriculture；　steam…navigation；　railways；　electric　telegraphs；

clearing　of　whole　continents　for　cultivation；　canalisation　of

rivers；　whole　populations　conjured　out　of　the　ground　　what

earlier　century　had　even　a　presentiment　that　such　productive

forces　slumbered　in　the　lap　of　social　labour？



We　see　then：　the　means　of　production　and　of　exchange；　on　whose

foundation　the　bourgeoisie　built　itself　up；　were　generated　in

feudal　society。　　At　a　certain　stage　in　the　development　of　these

means　of　production　and　of　exchange；　the　conditions　under　which

feudal　society　produced　and　exchanged；　the　feudal　organisation　of

agriculture　and　manufacturing　industry；　in　one　word；　the　feudal

relations　of　property　became　no　longer　compatible　with　the

already　developed　productive　forces；　they　became　so　many　fetters。

They　had　to　be　burst　asunder；　they　were　burst　asunder。



Into　their　place　stepped　free　competition；　accompanied　by　a

social　and　political　constitution　adapted　to　it；　and　by　the

economical　and　political　sway　of　the　bourgeois　class。



A　similar　movement　is　going　on　before　our　own　eyes。　　Modern

bourgeois　society　with　its　relations　of　production；　of　exchange

and　of　property；　a　society　that　has　conjured　up　such　gigantic

means　of　production　and　of　exchange；　is　like　the　sorcerer；　who　is

no　longer　able　to　control　the　powers　of　the　nether　world　whom　he

has　called　up　by　his　spells。　　For　many　a　decade　past　the　history

of　industry　and　commerce　is　but　the　history　of　the　revolt　of

modern　productive　forces　against　modern　conditions　of　production；

against　the　property　relations　that　are　the　conditions　for　the

existence　of　the　bourgeoisie　and　of　its　rule。　　It　is　enough　to

mention　the　commercial　crises　that　by　their　periodical　return　put

on　its　trial；　each　time　more　threateningly；　the　existence　of　the

entire　bourgeois　society。　　In　these　crises　a　great　part　not　only

of　the　existing　products；　but　also　of　the　previously　created

productive　forces；　are　periodically　destroyed。　　In　these　crises

there　breaks　out　an　epidemic　that；　in　all　earlier　epochs；　would

have　seemed　an　absurdity　　the　epidemic　of　over…production。

Society　suddenly　finds　itself　put　back　into　a　state　of　momentary

barbarism；　it　appears　as　if　a　famine；　a　universal　war　of

devastation　had　cut　off　the　supply　of　every　means　of　subsistence；

industry　and　commerce　seem　to　be　destroyed；　and　why？　　Because

there　is　too　much　civilisation；　too　much　means　of　subsistence；

too　much　industry；　too　much　commerce。　　The　productive　forces　at

the　disposal　of　society　no　longer　tend　to　further　the　development

of　the　conditions　of　bourgeois　property；　on　the　contrary；　they

have　become　too　powerful　for　these　conditions；　by　which　they　are

fettered；　and　so　soon　as　they　overcome　these　fetters；　they　bring

disorder　into　the　whole　of　bourgeois　society；　endanger　the

existence　of　bourgeois　property。　　The　conditions　of　bourgeois

society　are　too　narrow　to　comprise　the　wealth　created　by　them。

And　how　does　the　bourgeoisie　get　over　these　crises？　　On　the　one

hand　inforced　destruction　of　a　mass　of　productive　forces；　on　the

other；　by　the　conquest　of　new　markets；　and　by　the　more　thorough

exploitation　of　the　old　ones。　　That　is　to　say；　by　paving　the　way

for　more　extensive　and　more　destructive　crises；　and　by

diminishing　the　means　whereby　crises　are　prevented。



The　weapons　with　which　the　bourgeoisie　felled　feudalism　to　the

ground　are　now　turned　against　the　bourgeoisie　itself。



But　not　only　has　the　bourgeoisie　forged　the　weapons　that　bring

death　to　itself；　it　has　also　called　into　existence　the　men　who

are　to　wield　those　weapons　　the　modern　working　class　　the

proletarians。



In　proportion　as　the　bourgeoisie；　i。e。；　capital；　is　developed；

in　the　same　proportion　is　the　proletariat；　the　modern　working

class；　developed　　a　class　of　labourers；　who　live　only　so　long

as　they　find　work；　and　who　find　work　only　so　long　as　their　labour

increases　capital。　　These　labourers；　who　must　sell　themselves

piece…meal；　are　a　commodity；　like　every　other　article　of

commerce；　and　are　consequently　exposed　to　all　the　vicissitudes　of

competition；　to　all　the　fluctuations　of　the　market。



Owing　to　the　extensive　use　of　machinery　and　to　division　of

labour；　the　work　of　the　proletarians　has　lost　all　individual

character；　and　consequently；　all　charm　for　the　workman。　　He

becomes　an　appendage　of　the　machine；　and　it　is　only　the　most

simple；　most　monotonous；　and　most　easily　acquired　knack；　that　is

required　of　him。　　Hence；　the　cost　of　production　of　a　workman　is

restricted；　almost　entirely；　to　the　means　of　subsistence　that　he

requires　for　his　maintenance；　and　for　the　propagation　of　his

race。　　But　the　price　of　a　commodity；　and　therefore　also　of

labour；　is　equal　to　its　cost　of　production。　　In　proportion

therefore；　as　the　repulsiveness　of　the　work　increases；　the　wage

decreases。　　Nay　more；　in　proportion　as　the　use　of　machinery　and

division　of　labour　increases；　in　the　same　proportion　the　burden

of　toil　also　increases；　whether　by　prolongation　of　the　working

hours；　by　increase　of　the　work　exacted　in　a　given　time　or　by

increased　speed　of　the　machinery；　etc。



Modern　industry　has　converted　the　little　workshop　of　the

patriarchal　master　into　the　great　factory　of　the　industrial

capitalist。　　Masses　of　labourers；　crowded　into　the　factory；　are

organised　like　soldiers。　　As　privates　of　the　industrial　army　they

are　placed　under　the　command　of　a　perfect　hierarchy　of　officers

and　sergeants。　　Not　only　are　they　slaves　of　the　bourgeois　class；

and　of　the　bourgeois　State；　they　are　daily　and　hourly　enslaved　by

the　machine；　by　the　over…looker；　and；　above　all；　by　the

individual　bourgeois　manufacturer　himself。　　The　more　openly　this

despotism　proclaims　gain　to　be　its　end　and　aim；　the　more　petty；

the　more　hateful　and　the　more　embittering　it　is。



The　less　the　skill　and　exertion　of　strength　implied　in　manual

labour；　in　other　words；　the　more　modern　industry　becomes

developed；

the　more　is　the　labour　of　men　superseded　by　that　of　women。

Differences　of　age　and　sex　have　no　longer　any　distinctive　social

validity　for　the　working　class。　　All　are　instruments　of　labour；

more　or　less　expensive　to　use；　according　to　their　age　and　sex。



No　sooner　is　the　exploitation　of　the　labourer　by　the

manufacturer；

so　far；　at　an　end；　that　he　receives　his　wages　in　cash；　than　he　is

set　upon　by　the　other　portions　of　the　bourgeoisie；　the　landlord；

the　shopkeeper；　the　pawnbroker；　etc。



The　lower　strata　of　the　middle　class　　the　small　tradespeople；

shopkeepers；　retired　tradesmen　generally；　the　handicraftsmen　and

peasants　　all　these　sink　gradually　into　the　proletariat；　partly

because　their　diminutive　capital　does　not　suffice　for　the　scale

on　which　Modern　Industry　is　carried　on；　and　is　swamped　in　the

competition　with　the　large　capitalists；　partly　because　their

specialized　skill　is　rendered　worthless　by　the　new　methods　of

production。　　Thus　the　proletariat　is　recruited　from　all　classes

of　the　population。



The　proletariat　goes　through　various　stages　of　development。

With　its　birth　begins　its　struggle　with　the　bourgeoisie。　　At

first　the　contest　is　carried　on　by　individual　labourers；　then　by

the　workpeople　of　a　factory；　then　by　the　operatives　of　one　trade；

in　one　locality；　against　the　individual　bourgeois　who　directly

exploits　them。　　They　direct　their　attacks　not　against　the

bourgeois　conditions　of　production；　but　against　the　instruments

of　production　themselves；　they　destroy　imported　wares　that

compete　with　their　labour；　they　smash　to　pieces　machinery；　they

set　factories　ablaze；　they　seek　to　restore　by　force　the　vanished

status　of　the　workman　of　the　Middle　Ages。



At　this　stage　the　labourers　still　form　an　incoherent　mass

scattered　over　the　whole　country；　and　broken　up　by　their　mutual

competition。　　If　anywhere　they　unite　to　form　more　compact　bodies；

this　is　not　yet　the　consequence　of　their　own　active　union；　but　of

the　union　of　the　bourgeoisie；　which　class；　in　order　to　attain　its

own　political　ends；　is　compelled　to　set　the　whole　proletariat　in

motion；　and　is　moreover　yet；　for　a　time；　able　to　do　so。　　At　this

stage；　therefore；　the　proletarians　do　not　fight　their　enemies；

but　the　enemies　of　their　enemies；　the　remnants　of　absolute

monarchy；　the　landowners；　the　non…industrial　bourgeois；　the　petty

bourgeoisie。　　Thus　the　whole　historical　movement　is　concentrated

in　the　hands　of　the　bourgeoisie；　every　victory　so　obtained　is　a

victory　for　the　bourgeoisie。



But　with　the　development　of　industry　the　proletariat　not　only

increases　in　number；　it　becomes　concentrated　in　greater　masses；

its　strength　grows；　and　it　feels　that　strength　more。　　The　various

interests　and　conditions　of　life　within　the　ranks　of　the

proletariat　are　more　and　more　equalised；　in　proportion　as

machinery　obliterates　all　distinctions　of　labour；　and　nearly

everywhere　reduces　wages　to　the　same　low　level。　　The　growing

competition　among　the　bourgeois；　and　the　resulting　commercial

crises；　make　the　wages　of　the　workers　ever　more　fluctuating。　　The

unceasing　improvement　of　machinery；　ever　more　rapidly　developing；

makes　their　livelihood　more　and　more　precarious；　the　collisions

between　individual　workmen　and　individual　bourgeois　take　more　and

more　the　character　of　collisions　between　two　classes。　　Thereupon

the　workers　begin　to　form　combinations　（Trades　Unions）　against

the　bourgeois；　they　club　together　in　order　to　keep　up　the　rate　of

wages；　they　found　permanent　associations　in　order　to　make

provision　beforehand　for　these　occasional　revolts。　　Here　and

there　the　contest　breaks　out　into　riots。



Now　and　then　the　workers　are　victorious；　but　only　for　a　time。

The　real　fruit　of　their　battles　lies；　not　in　the　immediate

result；　but　in　the　ever…expanding　union　of　the　workers。　　This

union　is　helped　on　by　the　improved　means　of　communication　that

are　created　by　modern　industry　and　that　place　the　workers　of

different　localities　in　contact　with　one　another。　　I