wealbk02-第16章

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wish　of　alteration　or　improvement　of　any　kind。　An　augmentation　of

fortune　is　the　means　by　which　the　greater　part　of　men　propose　and

wish　to　better　their　condition。　It　is　the　means　the　most　vulgar

and　the　most　obvious；　and　the　most　likely　way　of　augmenting　their

fortune　is　to　save　and　accumulate　some　part　of　what　they　acquire；

either　regularly　and　annually；　or　upon　some　extraordinary

occasions。　Though　the　principle　of　expense；　therefore；　prevails

in　almost　all　men　upon　some　occasions；　and　in　some　men　upon

almost　all　occasions；　yet　in　the　greater　part　of　men；　taking　the

whole　course　of　their　life　at　an　average；　the　principle　of

frugality　seems　not　only　to　predominate；　but　to　predominate　very

greatly。

　　　　　With　regard　to　misconduct；　the　number　of　prudent　and

successful　undertakings　is　everywhere　much　greater　than　that　of

injudicious　and　unsuccessful　ones。　After　all　our　complaints　of

the　frequency　of　bankruptcies；　the　unhappy　men　who　fall　into　this

misfortune　make　but　a　very　small　part　of　the　whole　number　engaged

in　trade；　and　all　other　sorts　of　business；　not　much　more　perhaps

than　one　in　a　thousand。　Bankruptcy　is　perhaps　the　greatest　and

most　humiliating　calamity　which　can　befall　an　innocent　man。　The

greater　part　of　men；　therefore；　are　sufficiently　careful　to　avoid

it。　Some；　indeed；　do　not　avoid　it；　as　some　do　not　avoid　the

gallows。

　　　　　Great　nations　are　never　impoverished　by　private；　though　they

sometimes　are　by　public　prodigality　and　misconduct。　The　whole；　or

almost　the　whole　public　revenue；　is　in　most　countries　employed　in

maintaining　unproductive　hands。　Such　are　the　people　who　compose　a

numerous　and　splendid　court；　a　great　ecclesiastical

establishment；　great　fleets　and　armies；　who　in　time　of　peace

produce　nothing；　and　in　time　of　war　acquire　nothing　which　can

compensate　the　expense　of　maintaining　them；　even　while　the　war

lasts。　Such　people；　as　they　themselves　produce　nothing；　are　all

maintained　by　the　produce　of　other　men's　labour。　When　multiplied；

therefore；　to　an　unnecessary　number；　they　may　in　a　particular

year　consume　so　great　a　share　of　this　produce；　as　not　to　leave　a

sufficiency　for　maintaining　the　productive　labourers；　who　should

reproduce　it　next　year。　The　next　year's　produce；　therefore；　will

be　less　than　that　of　the　foregoing；　and　if　the　same　disorder

should　continue；　that　of　the　third　year　will　be　still　less　than

that　of　the　second。　Those　unproductive　hands；　who　should　be

maintained　by　a　part　only　of　the　spare　revenue　of　the　people；　may

consume　so　great　a　share　of　their　whole　revenue；　and　thereby

oblige　so　great　a　number　to　encroach　upon　their　capitals；　upon

the　funds　destined　for　the　maintenance　of　productive　labour；　that

all　the　frugality　and　good　conduct　of　individuals　may　not　be　able

to　compensate　the　waste　and　degradation　of　produce　occasioned　by

this　violent　and　forced　encroachment。

　　　　　This　frugality　and　good　conduct；　however；　is　upon　most

occasions；　it　appears　from　experience；　sufficient　to　compensate；

not　only　the　private　prodigality　and　misconduct　of　individuals；

but　the　public　extravagance　of　government。　The　uniform；　constant；

and　uninterrupted　effort　of　every　man　to　better　his　condition；

the　principle　from　which　public　and　national；　as　well　as　private

opulence　is　originally　derived；　is　frequently　powerful　enough　to

maintain　the　natural　progress　of　things　towards　improvement；　in

spite　both　of　the　extravagance　of　government　and　of　the　greatest

errors　of　administration。　Like　the　unknown　principle　of　animal

life；　it　frequently　restores　health　and　vigour　to　the

constitution；　in　spite；　not　only　of　the　disease；　but　of　the

absurd　prescriptions　of　the　doctor。

　　　　　The　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　any　nation　can

be　increased　in　its　value　by　no　other　means　but　by　increasing

either　the　number　of　its　productive　labourers；　or　the　productive

powers　of　those　labourers　who　had　before　been　employed。　The

number　of　its　productive　labourers；　it　is　evident；　can　never　be

much　increased；　but　in　consequence　of　an　increase　of　capital；　or

of　the　funds　destined　for　maintaining　them。　The　productive　powers

of　the　same　number　of　labourers　cannot　be　increased；　but　in

consequence　either　of　some　addition　and　improvement　to　those

machines　and　instruments　which　facilitate　and　abridge　labour；　or

of　a　more　proper　division　and　distribution　of　employment。　In

either　case　an　additional　capital　is　almost　always　required。　It

is　by　means　of　an　additional　capital　only　that　the　undertaker　of

any　work　can　either　provide　his　workmen　with　better　machinery　or

make　a　more　proper　distribution　of　employment　among　them。　When

the　work　to　be　done　consists　of　a　number　of　parts；　to　keep　every

man　constantly　employed　in　one　way　requires　a　much　greater

capital　than　where　every　man　is　occasionally　employed　in　every

different　part　of　the　work。　When　we　compare；　therefore；　the　state

of　a　nation　at　two　different　periods；　and　find；　that　the　annual

produce　of　its　land　and　labour　is　evidently　greater　at　the　latter

than　at　the　former；　that　its　lands　are　better　cultivated；　its

manufactures　more　numerous　and　more　flourishing；　and　its　trade

more　extensive；　we　may　be　assured　that　its　capital　must　have

increased　during　the　interval　between　those　two　periods；　and　that

more　must　have　been　added　to　it　by　the　good　conduct　of　some　than

had　been　taken　from　it　either　by　the　private　misconduct　of　others

or　by　the　public　extravagance　of　government。　But　we　shall　find

this　to　have　been　the　case　of　almost　all　nations；　in　all

tolerably　quiet　and　peaceable　times；　even　of　those　who　have　not

enjoyed　the　most　prudent　and　parsimonious　governments。　To　form　a

right　judgment　of　it；　indeed；　we　must　compare　the　state　of　the

country　at　periods　somewhat　distant　from　one　another。　The

progress　is　frequently　so　gradual　that；　at　near　periods；　the

improvement　is　not　only　not　sensible；　but　from　the　declension

either　of　certain　branches　of　industry；　or　of　certain　districts

of　the　country；　things　which　sometimes　happen　though　the　country

in　general　be　in　great　prosperity；　there　frequently　arises　a

suspicion　that　the　riches　and　industry　of　the　whole　are　decaying。

　　　　　The　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　England；　for

example；　is　certainly　much　greater　than　it　was；　a　little　more

than　a　century　ago；　at　the　restoration　of　Charles　II。　Though；　at

present；　few　people；　I　believe；　doubt　of　this；　yet　during　this

period；　five　years　have　seldom　passed　away　in　which　some　book　or

pamphlet　has　not　been　published；　written；　too；　with　such

abilities　as　to　gain　some　authority　with　the　public；　and

pretending　to　demonstrate　that　the　wealth　of　the　nation　was　fast

declining；　that　the　country　was　depopulated；　agriculture

neglected；　manufactures　decaying；　and　trade　undone。　Nor　have

these　publications　been　all　party　pamphlets；　the　wretched

offspring　of　falsehood　and　venality。　Many　of　them　have　been

written　by　very　candid　and　very　intelligent　people；　who　wrote

nothing　but　what　they　believed；　and　for　no　other　reason　but

because　they　believed　it。

　　　　　The　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　England；　again；

was　certainly　much　greater　at　the　Restoration；　than　we　can

suppose　it　to　have　been　about　an　hundred　years　before；　at　the

accession　of　Elizabeth。　At　this　period；　too；　we　have　all　reason

to　believe；　the　country　was　much　more　advanced　in　improvement

than　it　had　been　about　a　century　before；　towards　the　close　of　the

dissensions　between　the　houses　of　York　and　Lancaster。　Even　then

it　was；　probably；　in　a　better　condition　than　it　had　been　at　the

Norman　Conquest；　and　at　the　Norman　Conquest　than　during　the

confusion　of　the　Saxon　Heptarchy。　Even　at　this　early　period；　it

was　certainly　a　more　improved　country　than　at　the　invasion　of

Julius　Caesar；　when　its　inhabitants　were　nearly　in　the　same　state

with　the　savages　in　North　America。

　　　　　In　each　of　those　periods；　however；　there　was　not　only　much

private　and　public　profusion；　many　expensive　and　unnecessary

wars；　great　perversion　of　the　annual　produce　from　maintaining

productive　to　maintain　unproductive　hands；　but　sometimes；　in　the

confusion　of　civil　discord；　such　absolute　waste　and　destruction

of　stock；　as　might　be　supposed；　not　only　to　retard；　as　it

certainly　did；　the　natural　accumulation　of　riches；　but　to　have

left　the　country；　at　the　end　of　the　period；　poorer　than　at　the

beginning。　Thus；　in　the　happiest　and　most　fortunate　period　of

them　all；　that　which　has　passed　since　the　Restoration；　how　many

disorders　and　misfortunes　have　occurred；　which；　could　they　have

been　foreseen；　not　only　the　impoverishment；　but　the　total　ruin　of

the　country　would　have　been　expected　from　them？　The　fire　and　the

plague　of　London；　the　two　Dutch　wars；　the　disorders　of　the

Revolution；　the　war　in　Ireland；　the　four　expensive　French　wars　of

1688；　1702；　1742；　and　1756；　together　with　the　two　rebellions　of

1715　and　1745。　In　the　course　of　the　four　French　wars；　the　nation

has　contracted　more　than　a　hundred　and　forty…five　millions　of

debt；　over　and　above　all　the　other　extraordinary　annual　expense

which　they　occasioned；　so　that　the　whole　cannot　be　computed　at

less　than　two　hundred　millions。　So　great　a　share　of　the　annual

produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　the　country　has；　since　the

Revolution；　been　employed　upon　different　occasions　in　maintaining

an　extraordinary　number　of　unproductive　hands。　But　had　not　those

wars　given　this　particular　direction　to　so　large　a　capital；　the

greater　part　of　it　would　naturally　have　been　employed　in

maintaining　productive　hands；　whose　labour　would　have　replaced；

with　a　profit；　the　whole　value　of　their　consumption。　The　value　of

the　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　the　country　would

have　been　considerably　increased　by　it　every　year；　and　every

year's　increase　would　have　augmented　still　more　that　of　the

following　year。　More　houses　would　have　been　built；　more　lands

would　have　been　improved；　and　those　which　had　been　improved

before　would　have　been　better　cultivated；　more　manufactures　would

have　been　established。　and　those　which　had　been　established

before　would　have　been　more　extended；　and　to　what　height　the　real

wealth　and　revenue　of　the　country　might；　by　this　time；　have　been

raised；　it　is　not　perhaps　very　easy　even　to　imagine。

　　　　　But　though　the　profusion　of　government　must；　undoubtedly；

have　retarded　the　natural　progress　of　England　towards　wealth　and

improvement；　it　has　not　been　able　to　stop　it。　The　annual　produce

of　its　land　and　labour　is；　undoubtedly；　much　greater　at　present

than　it　was　either　at　the　Restoration　or　at　the　Revolution。　The

capital；　therefore；　annually　employed　in　cultivating　this　land；

and　in　maintaining　this　labour；　must　likewise　be　much　greater。　In

the　midst　of　all　the　exactions　of　government；　this　capital　has

been　silently　and　gradually　accumulated　by　the　private　frugality

and　good　conduct　of　individuals；　by　their　universal；　continual；

and　uninterrupted　effort　to　better　their　own　condition。　It　is

this　effort；　protected　by　law　and　allowed　by　liberty　to　exert

itself　in　the　manner　that　is　most　advantageous；　which　has

maintained　the