wealbk02-第20章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


imposes　upon　the　goods。　The　prejudices　of　some　political　writers

against　shopkeepers　and　tradesmen　are　altogether　without

foundation。　So　far　is　it　from　being　necessary　either　to　tax　them

or　to　restrict　their　numbers　that　they　can　never　be　multiplied　so

as　to　hurt　the　public；　though　they　may　so　as　to　hurt　one　another。

The　quantity　of　grocery　goods；　for　example；　which　can　be　sold　in

a　particular　town　is　limited　by　the　demand　of　that　town　and　its

neighbourhood。　The　capital；　therefore；　which　can　be　employed　in

the　grocery　trade　cannot　exceed　what　is　sufficient　to　purchase

that　quantity。　If　this　capital　is　divided　between　two　different

grocers；　their　competition　will　tend　to　make　both　of　them　sell

cheaper　than　if　it　were　in　the　hands　of　one　only；　and　if　it　were

divided　among　twenty；　their　competition　would　be　just　so　much　the

greater；　and　the　chance　of　their　combining　together；　in　order　to

raise　the　price；　just　so　much　the　less。　Their　competition　might

perhaps　ruin　some　of　themselves；　but　to　take　care　of　this　is　the

business　of　the　parties　concerned；　and　it　may　safely　be　trusted

to　their　discretion。　It　can　never　hurt　either　the　consumer　or　the

producer；　on　the　contrary；　it　must　tend　to　make　the　retailers

both　sell　cheaper　and　buy　dearer　than　if　the　whole　trade　was

monopolized　by　one　or　two　persons。　Some　of　them；　perhaps；　may

sometimes　decoy　a　weak　customer　to　buy　what　he　has　no　occasion

for。　This　evil；　however；　is　of　too　little　importance　to　deserve

the　public　attention；　nor　would　it　necessarily　be　prevented　by

restricting　their　numbers。　It　is　not　the　multitude　of　ale…houses；

to　give　the　most　suspicious　example；　that　occasions　a　general

disposition　to　drunkenness　among　the　common　people；　but　that

disposition　arising　from　other　causes　necessarily　gives

employment　to　a　multitude　of　ale…houses。

　　　　　The　persons　whose　capitals　are　employed　in　any　of　those　four

ways　are　themselves　productive　labourers。　Their　labour；　when

properly　directed；　fixes　and　realizes　itself　in　the　subject　or

vendible　commodity　upon　which　it　is　bestowed；　and　generally　adds

to　its　price　the　value　at　least　of　their　own　maintenance　and

consumption。　The　profits　of　the　farmer；　of　the　manufacturer；　of

the　merchant；　and　retailer；　are　all　drawn　from　the　price　of　the

goods　which　the　two　first　produce；　and　the　two　last　buy　and　sell。

Equal　capitals；　however；　employed　in　each　of　those　four　different

ways；　will　immediately　put　into　motion　very　different　quantities

of　productive　labour；　and　augment；　too；　in　very　different

proportions　the　value　of　the　annual　produce　of　the　land　and

labour　of　the　society　to　which　they　belong。

　　　　　The　capital　of　the　retailer　replaces；　together　with　its

profits；　that　of　the　merchant　of　whom　he　purchases　goods；　and

thereby　enables　him　to　continue　his　business。　The　retailer

himself　is　the　only　productive　labourer　whom　it　immediately

employs。　In　his　profits　consists　the　whole　value　which　its

employment　adds　to　the　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of

the　society。

　　　　　The　capital　of　the　wholesale　merchant　replaces；　together

with　their　profits；　the　capitals　of　the　farmers　and　manufacturers

of　whom　he　purchases　the　rude　and　manufactured　produce　which　he

deals　in；　and　thereby　enables　them　to　continue　their　respective

trades。　It　is　by　this　service　chiefly　that　he　contributes

indirectly　to　support　the　productive　labour　of　the　society；　and

to　increase　the　value　of　its　annual　produce。　His　capital　employs；

too；　the　sailors　and　carriers　who　transport　his　goods　from　one

place　to　another；　and　it　augments　the　price　of　those　goods　by　the

value；　not　only　of　his　profits；　but　of　their　wages。　This　is　all

the　productive　labour　which　it　immediately　puts　into　motion；　and

all　the　value　which　it　immediately　adds　to　the　annual　produce。

Its　operation　in　both　these　respects　is　a　good　deal　superior　to

that　of　the　capital　of　the　retailer。

　　　　　Part　of　the　capital　of　the　master　manufacturer　is　employed

as　a　fixed　capital　in　the　instruments　of　his　trade；　and　replaces；

together　with　its　profits；　that　of　some　other　artificer　of　whom

he　purchases　them。　Part　of　his　circulating　capital　is　employed　in

purchasing　materials；　and　replaces；　with　their　profits；　the

capitals　of　the　farmers　and　miners　of　whom　he　purchases　them。　But

a　great　part　of　it　is　always；　either　annually；　or　in　a　much

shorter　period；　distributed　among　the　different　workmen　whom　he

employs。　It　augments　the　value　of　those　materials　by　their　wages；

and　by　their　matters'　profits　upon　the　whole　stock　of　wages；

materials；　and　instruments　of　trade　employed　in　the　business。　It

puts　immediately　into　motion；　therefore；　a　much　greater　quantity

of　productive　labour；　and　adds　a　much　greater　value　to　the　annual

produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　the　society　than　an　equal

capital　in　the　hands　of　any　wholesale　merchant。

　　　　　No　equal　capital　puts　into　motion　a　greater　quantity　of

productive　labour　than　that　of　the　farmer。　Not　only　his　labouring

servants；　but　his　labouring　cattle；　are　productive　labourers。　In

agriculture；　too；　nature　labours　along　with　man；　and　though　her

labour　costs　no　expense；　its　produce　has　its　value；　as　well　as

that　of　the　most　expensive　workmen。　The　most　important　operations

of　agriculture　seem　intended　not　so　much　to　increase；　though　they

do　that　too；　as　to　direct　the　fertility　of　nature　towards　the

production　of　the　plants　most　profitable　to　man。　A　field

overgrown　with　briars　and　brambles　may　frequently　produce　as

great　a　quantity　of　vegetables　as　the　best　cultivated　vineyard　or

corn　field。　Planting　and　tillage　frequently　regulate　more　than

they　animate　the　active　fertility　of　nature；　and　after　all　their

labour；　a　great　part　of　the　work　always　remains　to　be　done　by

her。　The　labourers　and　labouring　cattle；　therefore；　employed　in

agriculture；　not　only　occasion；　like　the　workmen　in　manufactures；

the　reproduction　of　a　value　equal　to　their　own　consumption；　or　to

the　capital　which　employs　them；　together　with　its　owners'

profits；　but　of　a　much　greater　value。　Over　and　above　the　capital

of　the　farmer　and　all　its　profits；　they　regularly　occasion　the

reproduction　of　the　rent　of　the　landlord。　This　rent　may　be

considered　as　the　produce　of　those　powers　of　nature；　the　use　of

which　the　landlord　lends　to　the　farmer。　It　is　greater　or　smaller

according　to　the　supposed　extent　of　those　powers；　or　in　other

words；　according　to　the　supposed　natural　or　improved　fertility　of

the　land。　It　is　the　work　of　nature　which　remains　after　deducting

or　compensating　everything　which　can　be　regarded　as　the　work　of

man。　It　is　seldom　less　than　a　fourth；　and　frequently　more　than　a

third　of　the　whole　produce。　No　equal　quantity　of　productive

labour　employed　in　manufactures　can　ever　occasion　so　great　a

reproduction。　In　them　nature　does　nothing；　man　does　all；　and　the

reproduction　must　always　be　in　proportion　to　the　strength　of　the

agents　that　occasion　it。　The　capital　employed　in　agriculture；

therefore；　not　only　puts　into　motion　a　greater　quantity　of

productive　labour　than　any　equal　capital　employed　in

manufactures；　but　in　proportion；　too；　to　the　quantity　of

productive　labour　which　it　employs；　it　adds　a　much　greater　value

to　the　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　the　country；　to

the　real　wealth　and　revenue　of　its　inhabitants。　Of　all　the　ways

in　which　a　capital　can　be　employed；　it　is　by　far　the　most

advantageous　to　the　society。

　　　　　The　capitals　employed　in　the　agriculture　and　in　the　retail

trade　of　any　society　must　always　reside　within　that　society。

Their　employment　is　confined　almost　to　a　precise　spot；　to　the

farm　and　to　the　shop　of　the　retailer。　They　must　generally；　too；

though　there　are　some　exceptions　to　this；　belong　to　resident

members　of　the　society。

　　　　　The　capital　of　a　wholesale　merchant；　on　the　contrary；　seems

to　have　no　fixed　or　necessary　residence　anywhere；　but　may　wander

about　from　place　to　place；　according　as　it　can　either　buy　cheap

or　sell　dear。

　　　　　The　capital　of　the　manufacturer　must　no　doubt　reside　where

the　manufacture　is　carried　on；　but　where　this　shall　be　is　not

always　necessarily　determined。　It　may　frequently　be　at　a　great

distance　both　from　the　place　where　the　materials　grow；　and　from

that　where　the　complete　manufacture　is　consumed。　Lyons　is　very

distant　both　from　the　places　which　afford　the　materials　of　its

manufactures；　and　from　those　which　consume　them。　The　people　of

fashion　in　Sicily　are　clothed　in　silks　made　in　other　countries；

from　the　materials　which　their　own　produces。　Part　of　the　wool　of

Spain　is　manufactured　in　Great　Britain；　and　some　part　of　that

cloth　is　afterwards　sent　back　to　Spain。

　　　　　Whether　the　merchant　whose　capital　exports　the　surplus

produce　of　any　society　be　a　native　or　a　foreigner　is　of　very

little　importance。　If　he　is　a　foreigner；　the　number　of　their

productive　labourers　is　necessarily　less　than　if　he　had　been　a

native　by　one　man　only；　and　the　value　of　their　annual　produce　by

the　profits　of　that　one　man。　The　sailors　or　carriers　whom　he

employs　may　still　belong　indifferently　either　to　his　country　or

to　their　country；　or　to　some　third　country；　in　the　same　manner　as

if　he　had　been　a　native。　The　capital　of　a　foreigner　gives　a　value

to　their　surplus　produce　equally　with　that　of　a　native　by

exchanging　it　for　something　for　which　there　is　a　demand　at　home。

It　as　effectually　replaces　the　capital　of　the　person　who　produces

that　surplus；　and　as　effectually　enables　him　to　continue　his

business；　the　service　by　which　the　capital　of　a　wholesale

merchant　chiefly　contributes　to　support　the　productive　labour；

and　to　augment　the　value　of　the　annual　produce　of　the　society　to

which　he　belongs。

　　　　　It　is　of　more　consequence　that　the　capital　of　the

manufacturer　should　reside　within　the　country。　It　necessarily

puts　into　motion　a　greater　quantity　of　productive　labour；　and

adds　a　greater　value　to　the　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour

of　the　society。　It　may；　however；　be　very　useful　to　the　country；

though　it　should　not　reside　within　it。　The　capitals　of　the

British　manufacturers　who　work　up　the　flax　and　hemp　annually

imported　from　the　coasts　of　the　Baltic　are　surely　very　useful　to

the　countries　which　produce　them。　Those　materials　are　a　part　of

the　surplus　produce　of　those　countries　which；　unless　it　was

annually　exchanged　for　something　which　is　in　demand　there；　would

be　of　no　value；　and　would　soon　cease　to　be　produced。　The

merchants　who　export　it　replace　the　capitals　of　the　people　who

produce　it；　and　thereby　encourage　them　to　continue　the

production；　and　the　British　manufacturers　replace　the　capitals　of

those　merchants。

　　　　　A　particular　country；　in　the　same　manner　as　a　particular

person；　may　frequently　not　have　capital　sufficient　both　to

improve　and　cultivate　all　its　lands；　to　manufacture　and　prepare

their　whole　rude　produce　for　immediate　use　and　consumption；　and

to　transport　the　surplus　part　either　of　the　rude　or　manufactured

produce　to　those　distant　markets　where　it　can　be　exchanged　for

something　for　which　there　is　a　demand　at　home。　The　inhabitants　of

many　different　parts　of　Great　Brita