lect12-第3章

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employ　modern　phraseology；　we　must　call　one　of　ultra…legality。


And；　in　addition；　the　theory　is　open　to　precisely　the　same


objection　as　the　counter…hypothesis　of　Locke；　that　it　antedates


the　modern　juridical　conception　of　Contract。　But　still　I　think


that　Hobbes　did　correctly　in　addressing　himself　to　the　problem；


though　he　did　little　to　solve　it。　The　duty　of　enquiring；　if　not


how　Sovereignty　arose；　at　all　events　through　what　stages　it　has


passed；　is　in　my　judgment　indispensable。　It　is　only　thus　that　we


can　assure　ourselves　in　what　degree　the　results　of　the　Austinian


analysis　tally　with　facts。


　　　　There　is；　in　truth；　nothing　more　important　to　the　student　of


jurisprudence　than　that　he　should　carefully　consider　how　far　the


observed　facts　of　human　nature　and　society　bear　out　the


assertions　which　are　made　or　seem　to　be　made　about　Sovereignty　by


the　Analytical　Jurists。　To　begin　with；　these　assertions　must　be


disentangled　from　one　another。　The　first　of　them　is　that；　in


every　independent　community　of　men；　there　resides　the　power　of


acting　with　irresistible　force　on　the　several　members　of　that


community。　This　may　be　accepted　as　actual　fact。　If　all　the


members　of　the　community　had　equal　physical　strength　and　were


unarmed；　the　power　would　be　a　mere　result　from　the　superiority　of


numbers；　but；　as　a　matter。　of　fact；　various　causes；　of　which　much


the　most　important　have　been　the　superior　physical　strength　and


the　superior　armament　of　portions　of　the　community　have　conferred


on　numerical　minorities　the　power　of　applying　irresistible


pressure　to　the　individuals　who　make　up　the　community　as　a　whole。


The　next　assertion　is　that；　in　every　independent　political


community；　that　is　in　every　independent　community　neither　in　a


state　of　nature　on　the　one　hand　nor　in　a　state　of　anarchy　on　the


other；　the　power　of　using　or　directing　the　irresistible　force


stored…up　in　the　society　resides　in　some　person　or　combination　of


persons　who　belong　to　the　society　themselves。　The　truth　of　this


assertion　is　strongly　suggested　by　a　certain　class　of　facts；


particularly　by　the　political　facts　of　the　Western　and　Modern


world；　but　all　the　relevant　facts；　it　must　be　recollected；　have


not　been　fully　observed。　The　whole　world；　of　which　theorists　on


human　nature　are　extremely　apt　to　forget　considerably　more　than


half；　and　the　entire　history　of　the　whole　world；　would　have　to　be


examined　before　we　could　be　quite　sure　of　the　facts；　and；　if　this


were　done；　it　may　be　that　a　great　n　umber　of　the　facts　would　not


so　strongly　suggest　the　conclusion；　or；　as　I　myself　think；　the


assertion　which　we　are　considering　would　not　so　much　be　shown　to


be　false　as　to　be　only　verbally　true；　and　therefore　without　the


value　which　it　possesses　in　societies　of　the　type　to　which　our


own　belongs。　An　assertion；　however；　which　the　great　Analytical


Jurists　cannot　be　charged　with　making；　but　which　some　of　their


disciples　go　very　near　to　hazarding；　that　the　Sovereign　person　or


group　actually　wields　the　stored…up　force　of　society　by　an


uncontrolled　exercise　of　will；　is　certainly　never　in　accordance


with　fact。　A　despot　with　a　disturbed　brain　is　the　sole


conceivable　example　of　such　Sovereignty。　The　vast　mass　of


influences；　which　we　may　call　for　shortness　moral；　perpetually


shapes；　limits；　or　forbids　the　actual　direction　of　the　forces　of


society　by　its　Sovereign。　This　is　the　point　which；　of　all　others；


it　is　practically　most　necessary　that　the　student　should　bear　in


mind；　because　it　does　most　to　show　what　the　Austinian　view　of


Sovereignty　really　is　　that　it　is　the　result　of　Abstraction。　It


is　arrived　at　by　throwing　aside　all　the　characteristics　and


attributes　of　Government　and　Society　except　one；　and　by


connecting　all　forms　of　political　superiority　together　through


their　common　possession　of　force。　The　elements　neglected　in　the


process　are　always　important；　sometimes　of　extreme　importance；


for　they　consist　of　all　the　influences　controlling　human　action


except　force　directly　applied　or　directly　apprehended　；　but　the


operation　of　throwing　them　aside　for　purposes　of　classification


is；　I　need　hardly　say；　perfectly　legitimate　philosophically；　and


is　only　the　application　of　a　method　in　ordinary　scientific　use。


　　　　To　put　the　same　thing　in　another　way；　that　which　we　reject　in


the　process　of　abstraction　by　which　the　conception　of　Sovereignty


is　reached　is　the　entire　history　of　each　community。　First　of　all；


it　is　the　history；　the　whole　historical　antecedents；　of　each


society　by　which　it　has　been　determined　where；　in　what　person　or


group；　the　power　of　using　the　social　force　is　to　reside。　The


theory　of　Sovereignty　neglects　the　mode　in　which　the　result　has


been　arrived　at；　and　thus　is　enabled　to　class　together　the


coercive　authority　of　the　great　King　of　Persia；　of　the　Athenian


Demos；　of　the　later　Roman　Emperors；　of　the　Russian　Czar；　and　of


the　Crown　and　Parliament　of　Great　Britain。　Next；　it　is　its


history；　the　entire　mass　of　its　historical　antecedents；　which　in


each　community　determines　how　the　Sovereign　shall　exercise　or


forbear　from　exercising　his　irresistible　coercive　power。　All　that


constitutes　this　　the　whole　enormous　aggregate　of　opinions；


sentiments；　beliefs；　superstitions；　and　prejudices；　of　ideas　of


all　kinds；　hereditary　and　acquired；　some　produced　by　institutions


and　some　by　the　constitution　of　human　nature　　is　rejected　by


the　Analytical　Jurists。　And　thus　it　is　that；　so　far　as　the


restrictions　confined　in　their　definition　of　Sovereignty　are


concerned；　the　Queen　and　Parliament　of　our　own　country　might


direct　all　weakly　children　to　be　put　to　death　or　establish　a


system　of　lettres　de　cachet。


　　　　The　procedure　of　the　Analytical　Jurists　is　closely　analogous


to　that　followed　in　mathematics　and　political　economy。　It　is


strictly　philosophical；　but　the　practical　value　of　all　sciences


founded　on　abstractions　depends　on　the　relative　importance　of　the


elements　rejected　and　the　elements　retained　in　the　process　of


abstraction。　Tried　by　this　test；　mathematical　science　is　of


greatly　more　value　than　political　economy；　and　both　of　them　than


jurisprudence　as　conceived　by　the　writers　I　am　criticising。


Similarly；　the　misconceptions　to　which　the　Austinian　analysis


gives　rise　are　very　similar　to　those　which　might　be　conceived　as


embarrassing　the　student　of　mixed　mathematics；　and　which　do


actually　embarrass　the　student　of　political　economy。　Just　as　it


is　possible　to　forget　the　existence　of　friction　in　nature　and　the


reality　of　other　motives　in　society　except　the　desire　to　grow


rich；　so　the　pupil　of　Austin　may　be　tempted　to　forget　that　there


is　more　in　actual　Sovereignty　than　force；　and　more　in　laws　which


are　the　commands　of　sovereigns　than　can　be　got　out　of　them　by


merely　considering　them　as　regulated　force。　I　am　not　prepared　to


deny　that　Austin　occasionally；　and　Hobbes　frequently；　express


themselves　as　if　their　system　were　not　limited　throughout　by　the


limitation　which　is　at　its　base　All　the　great　masters　of


Abstraction　are；　in　fact；　now　and　then　betrayed　into　speaking　or


writing　as　if　the　materials　thrown　aside　in　the　purely　mental


process　were　actually　dross。


　　　　When；　however；　it　has　once　been　seen　that　in　Austin's　system


the　determination　of　Sovereignty　ought　to　precede　the


determination　of　Law；　when　it　is　once　understood　that　the


Austinian　conception　of　Sovereignty　has　been　reached　through


mentally　uniting　all　forms　of　government　in　a　group　by　conceiving


them　as　stripped　of　every　attribute　except　coercive　force；　and


when　it　is　steadily　borne　in　mind　that　the　deductions　from　an


abstract　principle　are　never　from　the　nature　of　the　case


completely　exemplified　in　facts；　not　only；　as　it　seems　to　me；　do


the　chief　difficulties　felt　by　the　student　of　Austin　disappear；


but　some　of　the　assertions　made　by　him　at　which　the　beginner　is


most　apt　to　stumble　have　rather　the　air　of　self…evident


propositions。　I　dare　say　you　are　sufficiently　acquainted　with　his


treatise　to　make　it　enough　for　me　to　mention　some　of　these


propositions；　without　the　amplifications　which　are　necessary　for


their　perfectly　accurate　statement。　Jurisprudence　is　the　science


of　Positive　Law。　Positive　Laws　are　Commands；　addressed　by


Sovereigns　to　their　Subjects；　imposing　a　Duty；　or　condition　of


obligedness；　or　obligation；　on　those　Subjects；　and　threatening　a


Sanction；　or　Penalty；　in　the　event　of　disobedience　to　the


Command。　A　Right　is　the　faculty　or　power　conferred　by　the


Sovereign　on　certain　members　of　the　community　to　draw　down　the


sanction　on　a　fellow…subject　violating　a　Duty。　Now　all　these


conceptions　of　Law；　Right；　Duty　and　Punishment　depend　upon　the


primary　conception　of　Sovereignty；　just　as　the　lower　links　of　a


chain　hanging　down　depend　upon　the　highest　link。　But　Sovereignty；


for　the　purposes　of　Austin's　system；　has　no　attribute　but　force；


and　consequently　the　view　here　taken　of　'law'　'obligation'　and


'right'　is　a　view　of　them　regarded　exclusively　as　products　of


coercive　force。　The　'sanction'　thus　becomes　the　primary　and　most


important　member　of　the　series　of　notions　and　gives　its　colour　to


all　the　others。　Probably　nobody　ever　found　a　difficulty　in


allowing　that　laws　have　the　character　given　to　them　by　Austin；　so


far　as　such　laws　have　proceeded　from　formal　Legislatures。　But


many　persons；　and　among　them　some　men　of　powerful　mind；　have


struggled　against　the　position　that　the　great　mass　of　legal　rules


which　have　never　been　prescribed　by　the　organ　of　State；


conventionally　known　as　the　Legislature；　are　commands　of　the


Sovereign。　The　customary　law　of　all　countries　which　have　not


included　their　law　in　Codes；　and　specially　the　English　Common


law；　have　often　had　an　origin　claimed　for　them　independently　of


the　Sovereign；　and　theories　have　been　propounded　on　the　subject


which　Austin　scouts　as　mysterious　and　unintelligible。　The　way　in


which　Hobbes　and　he　bring　such　bodies　of　rules　as　the　Common　law


under　their　system　is　by　insisting　on　a　maxim　which　is　of　vital


importance　to　it　　'Whatever　the　Sovereign　permits；　he


commands。'　Until　customs　are　enforced　by　Courts　of　Justice；　they


are　merely　'positive　morality；'　rules　enforced　by　opinion；　but；


as　soon　as　Courts　of　Justice　enforce　them；　they　become　commands


of　the　Sovereign；　conveyed　through　the　Judges　who　are　his


delegates　or　deputies。　It　is　a　better　answer　to　this　theory　than


Austin　would　perhaps　have　admitted　that　it　is　founded　on　a　mere


artifice　of　speech；　and　that　it　assumes　Courts　of　Justice　to　act


in　a　way　and　from　motives　of　which　they　are　quite　unconscious。


But；　when　it　is　clearly　comprehended　that；　in　this　system；　there