of commerce-第1章

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Of　Commerce

by　David　Hume





　　　　The　greater　part　of　mankind　may　be　divided　into　two　classes；
that　of　shallow　thinkers；　who　fall　short　of　the　truth；　and　that
of　abstruse　thinkers；　who　go　beyond　it。　The　latter　class　are　by
far　the　most　rare：　and　I　may　add；　by　far　the　most　useful　and
valuable。　They　suggest　hints；　at　least；　and　start　difficulties；
which　they　want；　perhaps；　skill　to　pursue；　but　which　may　produce
fine　discoveries；　when　handled　by　men　who　have　a　more　just　way　of
thinking。　At　worst；　what　they　say　is　uncommon；　and　if　it　should
cost　some　pains　to　comprehend　it；　one　has；　however；　the　pleasure
of　hearing　something　that　is　new。　An　author　is　little　to　be
valued；　who　tells　us　nothing　but　what　we　can　learn　from　every
coffee…house　conversation。
　　　　All　people　of　shallow　thought　are　apt　to　decry　even　those　of
solid　understanding；　as　abstruse　thinkers；　and　metaphysicians；
and　refiners；　and　never　will　allow　any　thing　to　be　just　which　is
beyond　their　own　weak　conceptions。　There　are　some　cases；　I　own；
where　an　extraordinary　refinement　affords　a　strong　presumption　of
falsehood；　and　where　no　reasoning　is　to　be　trusted　but　what　is
natural　and　easy。　When　a　man　deliberates　concerning　his　conduct
in　any　particular　affair；　and　forms　schemes　in　politics；　trade；
oeconomy；　or　any　business　in　life；　he　never　ought　to　draw　his
arguments　too　fine；　or　connect　too　long　a　chain　of　consequences
together。　Something　is　sure　to　happen；　that　will　disconcert　his
reasoning；　and　produce　an　event　different　from　what　he　expected。
But　when　we　reason　upon　general　subjects；　one　may　justly　affirm；
that　our　speculations　can　scarcely　ever　be　too　fine；　provided
they　be　just；　and　that　the　difference　between　a　common　man　and　a
man　of　genius　is　chiefly　seen　in　the　shallowness　or　depth　of　the
principles　upon　which　they　proceed。　General　reasonings　seem
intricate；　merely　because　they　are　general；　nor　is　it　easy　for
the　bulk　of　mankind　to　distinguish；　in　a　great　number　of
particulars；　that　common　circumstance　in　which　they　all　agree；　or
to　extract　it；　pure　and　unmixed；　from　the　other　superfluous
circumstances。　Every　judgment　or　conclusion；　with　them；　is
particular。　They　cannot　enlarge　their　view　to　those　universal
propositions；　which　comprehend　under　them　an　infinite　number　of
individuals；　and　include　a　whole　science　in　a　single　theorem。
Their　eye　is　confounded　with　such　an　extensive　prospect；　and　the
conclusions；　derived　from　it；　even　though　clearly　expressed；　seem
intricate　and　obscure。　But　however　intricate　they　may　seem；　it　is
certain；　that　general　principles；　if　just　and　sound；　must　always
prevail　in　the　general　course　of　things；　though　they　may　fail　in
particular　cases；　and　it　is　the　chief　business　of　philosophers　to
regard　the　general　course　of　things。　I　may　add；　that　it　is　also
the　chief　business　of　politicians；　especially　in　the　domestic
government　of　the　state；　where　the　public　good；　which　is；　or
ought　to　be　their　object；　depends　on　the　concurrence　of　a
multitude　of　causes；　not；　as　in　foreign　politics；　on　accidents
and　chances；　and　the　caprices　of　a　few　persons。　This　therefore
makes　the　difference　between　particular　deliberations　and　general
reasonings；　and　renders　subtilty　and　refinement　much　more
suitable　to　the　latter　than　to　the　former。
　　　　I　thought　this　introduction　necessary　before　the　following
discourses　on　commerce；　money；　interest；　balance　of　trade；　&c。
where；　perhaps；　there　will　occur　some　principles　which　are
uncommon；　and　which　may　seem　too　refined　and　subtile　for　such
vulgar　subjects。　If　false；　let　them　be　rejected：　But　no　one　ought
to　entertain　a　prejudice　against　them；　merely　because　they　are
out　of　the　common　road。
　　　　The　greatness　of　a　state；　and　the　happiness　of　its　subjects；
how　independent　soever　they　may　be　supposed　in　some　respects；　are
commonly　allowed　to　be　inseparable　with　regard　to　commerce；　and
as　private　men　receive　greater　security；　in　the　possession　of
their　trade　and　riches；　from　the　power　of　the　public；　so　the
public　becomes　powerful　in　proportion　to　the　opulence　and
extensive　commerce　of　private　men。　This　maxim　is　true　in　general；
though　I　cannot　forbear　thinking；　that　it　may　possibly　admit　of
exceptions；　and　that　we　often　establish　it　with　too　little
reserve　and　limitation。　There　may　be　some　circumstances；　where
the　commerce　and　riches　and　luxury　of　individuals；　instead　of
adding　strength　to　the　public；　will　serve　only　to　thin　its
armies；　and　diminish　its　authority　among　the　neighbouring
nations。　Man　is　a　very　variable　being；　and　susceptible　of　many
different　opinions；　principles；　and　rules　of　conduct。　What　may　be
true；　while　he　adheres　to　one　way　of　thinking；　will　be　found
false；　when　he　has　embraced　an　opposite　set　of　manners　and
opinions。
　　　　The　bulk　of　every　state　may　be　divided　into　husbandmen　and
manufacturers。　The　former　are　employed　in　the　culture　of　the
land；　the　latter　work　up　the　materials　furnished　by　the　former；
into　all　the　commodities　which　are　necessary　or　ornamental　to
human　life。　As　soon　as　men　quit　their　savage　state；　where　they
live　chiefly　by　hunting　and　fishing；　they　must　fall　into　these
two　classes；　though　the　arts　of　agriculture　employ　at　first　the
most　numerous　part　of　the　society。　Time　and　experience　improve　so
much　these　arts；　that　the　land　may　easily　maintain　a　much　greater
number　of　men；　than　those　who　are　immediately　employed　in　its
culture；　or　who　furnish　the　more　necessary　manufactures　to　such
as　are　so　employed。
　　　　If　these　superfluous　hands　apply　themselves　to　the　finer
arts；　which　are　commonly　denominated　the　arts　of　luxury；　they　add
to　the　happiness　of　the　state；　since　they　afford　to　many　the
opportunity　of　receiving　enjoyments；　with　which　they　would
otherwise　have　been　unacquainted。　But　may　not　another　scheme　be
proposed　for　the　employment　of　these　superfluous　hands？　May　not
the　sovereign　lay　claim　to　them；　and　employ　them　in　fleets　and
armies；　to　encrease　the　dominions　of　the　state　abroad。　and　spread
its　fame　over　distant　nations？　It　is　certain　that　the　fewer
desires　and　wants　are　found　in　the　proprietors　and　labourers　of
land；　the　fewer　hands　do　they　employ；　and　consequently　the
superfluities　of　the　land；　instead　of　maintaining　tradesmen　and
manufacturers；　may　support　fleets　and　armies　to　a　much　greater
extent；　than　where　a　great　many　arts　are　required　to　minister　to
the　luxury　of　particular　persons。　Here　therefore　seems　to　be　a
kind　of　opposition　between　the　greatness　of　the　state　and　the
happiness　of　the　subject。　A　state　is　never　greater　than　when　all
its　superfluous　hands　are　employed　in　the　service　of　the　public。
The　ease　and　convenience　of　private　persons　require；　that　these
hands　should　be　employed　in　their　service。　The　one　can　never　be
satisfied；　but　at　the　expence　of　the　other。　As　the　ambition　of
the　sovereign　must　entrench　on　the　luxury　of　individuals；　so　the
luxury　of　individuals　must　diminish　the　force；　and　check　the
ambition　of　the　sovereign。
　　　　Nor　is　this　reasoning　merely　chimerical；　but　is　founded　on
history　and　experience。　The　republic　of　SPARTA　was　certainly　more
powerful　than　any　state　now　in　the　world；　consisting　of　an　equal
number　of　people；　and　this　was　owing　entirely　to　the　want　of
commerce　and　luxury。　The　HELOTES　were　the　labourers：　The　SPARTANS
were　the　soldiers　or　gentlemen。　It　is　evident；　that　the　labour　of
the　HELOTES　could　not　have　maintained　so　great　a　number　of
SPARTANS；　had　these　latter　lived　in　ease　and　delicacy；　and　given
employment　to　a　great　variety　of　trades　and　manufactures。　The
like　policy　may　be　remarked　in　ROME。　And　indeed；　throughout　all
ancient　history；　it　is　observable；　that　the　smallest　republics
raised　and　maintained　greater　armies；　than　states　consisting　of
triple　the　number　of　inhabitants；　are　able　to　support　at　present。
It　is　computed；　that；　in　all　EUROPEAN　nations；　the　proportion
between　soldiers　and　people　does　not　exceed　one　to　a　hundred。　But
we　read；　that　the　city　of　ROME　alone；　with　its　small　territory；
raised　and　maintained；　in　early　times；　ten　legions　against　the
LATINS。　ATHENS；　the　whole　of　whose　dominions　was　not　larger　than
YORKSHIRE；　sent　to　the　expedition　against　SICILY　near　forty
thousand　men。　DIONYSIUS　the　elder；　it　is　said；　maintained　a
standing　army　of　a　hundred　thousand　foot　and　ten　thousand　horse；
besides　a　large　fleet　of　four　hundred　sail；　though　his
territories　extended　no　farther　than　the　city　of　SYRACUSE；　about
a　third　of　the　island　of　SICILY；　and　some　sea…port　towns　and
garrisons　on　the　coast　of　ITALY　and　ILLYRICUM。　It　is　true；　the
ancient　armies；　in　time　of　war；　subsisted　much　upon　plunder：　But
did　not　the　enemy　plunder　in　their　turn？　which　was　a　more　ruinous
way　of　levying　a　tax；　than　any　other　that　could　be　devised。　In
short；　no　probable　reason　can　be　assigned　for　the　great　power　of
the　more　ancient　states　above　the　modern；　but　their　want　of
commerce　and　luxury。　Few　artizans　were　maintained　by　the　labour
of　the　farmers；　and　therefore　more　soldiers　might　live　upon　it。
LIVY　says；　that　ROME；　in　his　time；　would　find　it　difficult　to
raise　as　large　an　army　as　that　which；　in　her　early　days；　she　sent
out　against　the　GAULS　and　LATINS。　Instead　of　those　soldiers　who
fought　for　liberty　and　empire　in　CAMILLUS'S　time；　there　were；　in
AUGUSTUS'S　days；　musicians；　painters；　cooks；　players；　and
tailors；　and　if　the　land　was　equally　cultivated　at　both　periods；
it　could　certainly　maintain　equal　numbers　in　the　one　profession
as　in　the　other。　They　added　nothing　to　the　mere　necessaries　of
life；　in　the　latter　period　more　than　in　the　former。
　　　　It　is　natural　on　this　occasion　to　ask；　whether　sovereigns　may
not　return　to　the　maxims　of　ancient　policy；　and　consult　their　own
interest　in　this　respect；　more　than　the　happiness　of　their
subjects？　I　answer；　that　it　appears　to　me；　almost　impossible；　and
that　because　ancient　policy　was　violent；　and　contrary　to　the　more
natural　and　usual　course　of　things。　It　is　well　known　with　what
peculiar　laws　SPARTA　was　governed；　and　what　a　prodigy　that
republic　is　justly　esteemed　by　every　one；　who　has　considered
human　nature　as　it　has　displayed　itself　in　other　nations；　and
other　ages。　Were　the　testimony　of　history　less　positive　and
circumstantial；　such　a　government　would　appear　a　mere
philosophical　whim　or　fiction；　and　impossible　ever　to　be　reduced
to　practice。　And　though　the　ROMAN　and　other　ancient　republics
were　supported　on　principles　somewhat　more　natural；　yet　was　there
an　extraordinary　concurrence　of　circumstances　to　make　them　submit
to　such　grievous　burthens。　They　were　free　states；　they　were　small
ones；　and　the　age　being　martial；　all　their　neighbours　were
continually　in　arms。　Freedom　naturally　begets　public　spirit；
especially　in　small　states；　and　this　public　spirit；　this　amor
patriae；　must　encrease；　when　the　public　is　almost　in　continual
alarm；　and　men　are　obliged；　every　moment；　to　expose　themselves　to
the　greatest　dangers　for　its　defence。　A　continual　succession　of
wars　makes　every　citizen　a　soldier：　He　takes　the　field　in　his
turn：　And　during　his　service　he　is　chiefly　maintained　by　himself。
This　service　is　indeed　equivalent　to　a　heavy　tax；　yet　is　it　less
felt　by　a　people　addicted　to　arms；　who　fight　for　honour　and
revenge　more　than　pay