of commerce-第2章

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felt　by　a　people　addicted　to　arms；　who　fight　for　honour　and
revenge　more　than　pay；　and　are　unacquainted　with　gain　and
industry　as　well　as　pleasure。　Not　to　mention　the　great　equality
of　fortunes　among　the　inhabitants　of　the　ancient　republics；　where
every　field；　belonging　to　a　different　proprietor；　was　able　to
maintain　a　family；　and　rendered　the　numbers　of　citizens　very
considerable；　even　without　trade　and　manufactures。
　　　　But　though　the　want　of　trade　and　manufactures；　among　a　free
and　very　martial　people；　may　sometimes　have　no　other　effect　than
to　render　the　public　more　powerful；　it　is　certain；　that；　in　the
common　course　of　human　affairs；　it　will　have　a　quite　contrary
tendency。　Sovereigns　must　take　mankind　as　they　find　them；　and
cannot　pretend　to　introduce　any　violent　change　in　their
principles　and　ways　of　thinking。　A　long　course　of　time；　with　a
variety　of　accidents　and　circumstances；　are　requisite　to　produce
those　great　revolutions；　which　so　much　diversify　the　face　of
human　affairs。　And　the　less　natural　any　set　of　principles　are；
which　support　a　particular　society；　the　more　difficulty　will　a
legislator　meet　with　in　raising　and　cultivating　them。　It　is　his
best　policy　to　comply　with　the　common　bent　of　mankind；　and　give
it　all　the　improvements　of　which　it　is　susceptible。　Now；
according　to　the　most　natural　course　of　things；　industry　and　arts
and　trade　encrease　the　power　of　the　sovereign　as　well　as　the
happiness　of　the　subjects；　and　that　policy　is　violent；　which
aggrandizes　the　public　by　the　poverty　of　individuals。　This　will
easily　appear　from　a　few　considerations；　which　will　present　to　us
the　consequences　of　sloth　and　barbarity。
　　　　Where　manufactures　and　mechanic　arts　are　not　cultivated；　the
bulk　of　the　people　must　apply　themselves　to　agriculture；　and　if
their　skill　and　industry　encrease；　there　must　arise　a　great
superfluity　from　their　labour　beyond　what　suffices　to　maintain
them。　They　have　no　temptation；　therefore；　to　encrease　their　skill
and　industry；　since　they　cannot　exchange　that　superfluity　for　any
commodities；　which　may　serve　either　to　their　pleasure　or　vanity。
A　habit　of　indolence　naturally　prevails。　The　greater　part　of　the
land　lies　uncultivated。　What　is　cultivated；　yields　not　its　utmost
for　want　of　skill　and　assiduity　in　the　farmers。　If　at　any　time
the　public　exigencies　require；　that　great　numbers　should　be
employed　in　the　public　service；　the　labour　of　the　people
furnishes　now　no　superfluities；　by　which　these　numbers　can　be
maintained。　The　labourers　cannot　encrease　their　skill　and
industry　on　a　sudden。　Lands　uncultivated　cannot　be　brought　into
tillage　for　some　years。　The　armies；　mean　while；　must　either　make
sudden　and　violent　conquests；　or　disband　for　want　of　subsistence。
A　regular　attack　or　defence；　therefore；　is　not　to　be　expected
from　such　a　people；　and　their　soldiers　must　be　as　ignorant　and
unskilful　as　their　farmers　and　manufacturers。
　　　　Every　thing　in　the　world　is　purchased　by　labour；　and　our
passions　are　the　only　causes　of　labour。　When　a　nation　abounds　in
manufactures　and　mechanic　arts；　the　proprietors　of　land；　as　well
as　the　farmers；　study　agriculture　as　a　science；　and　redouble
their　industry　and　attention。　The　superfluity；　which　arises　from
their　labour；　is　not　lost；　but　is　exchanged　with　manufactures　for
those　commodities；　which　men's　luxury　now　makes　them　covet。　By
this　means；　land　furnishes　a　great　deal　more　of　the　necessaries
of　life；　than　what　suffices　for　those　who　cultivate　it。　In　times
of　peace　and　tranquillity；　this　superfluity　goes　to　the
maintenance　of　manufacturers；　and　the　improvers　of　liberal　arts。
But　it　is　easy　for　the　public　to　convert　many　of　these
manufacturers　into　soldiers；　and　maintain　them　by　that
superfluity；　which　arises　from　the　labour　of　the　farmers。
Accordingly　we　find；　that　this　is　the　case　in　all　civilized
governments。　When　the　sovereign　raises　an　army；　what　is　the
consequence？　He　imposes　a　tax。　This　tax　obliges　all　the　people　to
retrench　what　is　least　necessary　to　their　subsistence。　Those；　who
labour　in　such　commodities；　must　either　enlist　in　the　troops；　or
turn　themselves　to　agriculture；　and　thereby　oblige　some　labourers
to　enlist　for　want　of　business。　And　to　consider　the　matter
abstractedly；　manufactures　encrease　the　power　of　the　state　only
as　they　store　up　so　much　labour；　and　that　of　a　kind　to　which　the
public　may　lay　claim；　without　depriving　any　one　of　the
necessaries　of　life。　The　more　labour；　therefore；　is　employed
beyond　mere　necessaries；　the　more　powerful　is　any　state；　since
the　persons　engaged　in　that　labour　may　easily　be　converted　to　the
public　service。　In　a　state　without　manufactures；　there　may　be　the
same　number　of　hands；　but　there　is　not　the　same　quantity　of
labour；　nor　of　the　same　kind。　All　the　labour　is　there　bestowed
upon　necessaries；　which　can　admit　of　little　or　no　abatement。
　　　　Thus　the　greatness　of　the　sovereign　and　the　happiness　of　the
state　are；　in　a　great　measure；　united　with　regard　to　trade　and
manufactures。　It　is　a　violent　method；　and　in　most　cases
impracticable；　to　oblige　the　labourer　to　toil；　in　order　to　raise
from　the　land　more　than　what　subsists　himself　and　family。　Furnish
him　with　manufactures　and　commodities；　and　he　will　do　it　of
himself。　Afterwards　you　will　find　it　easy　to　seize　some　part　of
his　superfluous　labour；　and　employ　it　in　the　public　service；
without　giving　him　his　wonted　return。　Being　accustomed　to
industry；　he　will　think　this　less　grievous；　than　if；　at　once；　you
obliged　him　to　an　augmentation　of　labour　without　any　reward。　The
case　is　the　same　with　regard　to　the　other　members　of　the　state。
The　greater　is　the　stock　of　labour　of　all　kinds；　the　greater
quantity　may　be　taken　from　the　heap；　without　making　any　sensible
alteration　in　it。
　　　　A　public　granary　of　corn；　a　storehouse　of　cloth；　a　magazine
of　arms；　all　these　must　be　allowed　real　riches　and　strength　in
any　state。　Trade　and　industry　are　really　nothing　but　a　stock　of
labour；　which；　in　times　of　peace　and　tranquillity；　is　employed
for　the　ease　and　satisfaction　of　individuals；　but　in　the
exigencies　of　state；　may；　in　part；　be　turned　to　public　advantage。
Could　we　convert　a　city　into　a　kind　of　fortified　camp；　and　infuse
into　each　breast　so　martial　a　genius；　and　such　a　passion　for
public　good；　as　to　make　every　one　willing　to　undergo　the　greatest
hardships　for　the　sake　of　the　public；　these　affections　might　now；
as　in　ancient　times；　prove　alone　a　sufficient　spur　to　industry；
and　support　the　community。　It　would　then　be　advantageous；　as　in
camps；　to　banish　all　arts　and　luxury；　and；　by　restrictions　on
equipage　and　tables；　make　the　provisions　and　forage　last　longer
than　if　the　army　were　loaded　with　a　number　of　superfluous
retainers。　But　as　these　principles　are　too　disinterested　and　too
difficult　to　support；　it　is　requisite　to　govern　men　by　other
passions；　and　animate　them　with　a　spirit　of　avarice　and　industry；
art　and　luxury。　The　camp　is；　in　this　case；　loaded　with　a
superfluous　retinue；　but　the　provisions　flow　in　proportionably
larger。　The　harmony　of　the　whole　is　still　supported；　and　the
natural　bent　of　the　mind　being　more　complied　with；　individuals；
as　well　as　the　public；　find　their　account　in　the　observance　of
those　maxims。
　　　　The　same　method　of　reasoning　will　let　us　see　the　advantage　of
foreign　commerce；　in　augmenting　the　power　of　the　state；　as　well
as　the　riches　and　happiness　of　the　subject。　It　encreases　the
stock　of　labour　in　the　nation；　and　the　sovereign　may　convert　what
share　of　it　he　finds　necessary　to　the　service　of　the　public。
Foreign　trade；　by　its　imports；　furnishes　materials　for　new
manufactures；　and　by　its　exports；　it　produces　labour　in
particular　commodities；　which　could　not　be　consumed　at　home。　In
short；　a　kingdom；　that　has　a　large　import　and　export；　must　abound
more　with　industry；　and　that　employed　upon　delicacies　and
luxuries；　than　a　kingdom　which　rests　contented　with　its　native
commodities。　It　is；　therefore；　more　powerful；　as　well　as　richer
and　happier。　The　individuals　reap　the　benefit　of　these
commodities；　so　far　as　they　gratify　the　senses　and　appetites。　And
the　public　is　also　a　gainer；　while　a　greater　stock　of　labour　is；
by　this　means；　stored　up　against　any　public　exigency；　that　is；　a
greater　number　of　laborious　men　are　maintained；　who　may　be
diverted　to　the　public　service；　without　robbing　any　one　of　the
necessaries；　or　even　the　chief　conveniencies　of　life。
　　　　If　we　consult　history；　we　shall　find；　that；　in　most　nations；
foreign　trade　has　preceded　any　refinement　in　home　manufactures；
and　given　birth　to　domestic　luxury。　The　temptation　is　stronger　to
make　use　of　foreign　commodities；　which　are　ready　for　use；　and
which　are　entirely　new　to　us；　than　to　make　improvements　on　any
domestic　commodity；　which　always　advance　by　slow　degrees；　and
never　affect　us　by　their　novelty。　The　profit　is　also　very　great；
in　exporting　what　is　superfluous　at　home；　and　what　bears　no
price；　to　foreign　nations；　whose　soil　or　climate　is　not
favourable　to　that　commodity。　Thus　men　become　acquainted　with　the
pleasures　of　luxury　and　the　profits　of　commerce；　and　their
delicacy　and　industry；　being　once　awakened；　carry　them　on　to
farther　improvements；　in　every　branch　of　domestic　as　well　as
foreign　trade。　And　this　perhaps　is　the　chief　advantage　which
arises　from　a　commerce　with　strangers。　It　rouses　men　from　their
indolence；　and　presenting　the　gayer　and　more　opulent　part　of　the
nation　with　objects　of　luxury；　which　they　never　before　dreamed
of；　raises　in　them　a　desire　of　a　more　splendid　way　of　life　than
what　their　ancestors　enjoyed。　And　at　the　same　time；　the　few
merchants；　who　possess　the　secret　of　this　importation　and
exportation；　make　great　profits；　and　becoming　rivals　in　wealth　to
the　ancient　nobility；　tempt　other　adventurers　to　become　their
rivals　in　commerce。　Imitation　soon　diffuses　all　those　arts；　while
domestic　manufactures　emulate　the　foreign　in　their　improvements；
and　work　up　every　home　commodity　to　the　utmost　perfection　of
which　it　is　susceptible。　Their　own　steel　and　iron；　in　such
laborious　hands；　become　equal　to　the　gold　and　rubies　of　the
INDIES。
　　　　When　the　affairs　of　the　society　are　once　brought　to　this
situation；　a　nation　may　lose　most　of　its　foreign　trade；　and　yet
continue　a　great　and　powerful　people。　If　strangers　will　not　take
any　particular　commodity　of　ours；　we　must　cease　to　labour　in　it。
The　same　hands　will　turn　themselves　towards　some　refinement　in
other　commodities；　which　may　be　wanted　at　home。　And　there　must
always　be　materials　for　them　to　work　upon；　till　every　person　in
the　state；　who　possesses　riches；　enjoys　as　great　plenty　of　home
commodities；　and　those　in　as　great　perfection；　as　he　desires；
which　can　never　possibly　happen。　CHINA　is　represented　as　one　of
the　most　flourishing　empires　in　the　world；　though　it　has　very
little　commerce　beyond　its　own　territories。
　　　　It　will　not；　I　hope；　be　considered　as　a　superfluous
digression；　if　I　here　observe；　that；　as　the　multitude　of
mechanical　arts　is　advantageous；　so　is　the　great　number　of
persons　to　whose　share　the　productions　of　these　arts　fall。　A　too
great　disproportion　among　the　citizens　weakens　any　state。　Every
person；　if　possible；　ought　to　enjoy　the　fruits　of　his　labour；　in
a　full　possession　o