political economy-第10章

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ts　not　to　the　ground　the　labour　of　his　young　years；　to　reap　the　fruit　of　it；　with　interest；　in　his　old　age。　He　lives　each　week　on　the　wages　of　the　last。　Ever　exposed　to　the　want　of　work　by　derangements　in　his　master's　fortune；　ever　ready　to　feel　the　extremes　of　want；　from　sickness；　accident；　or　even　the　approaches　of　old　age；　he　runs　all　the　risks　of　ruin　without　enjoying　any　of　the　chances　of　fortune。　Economy　in　his　situation　is　scarcely　probable；　but　though　he　should　succeed　in　collecting　a　little　capital；　the　suppression　of　all　intermediate　ranks　hinders　him　from　putting　it　to　use。　The　distance　between　his　lot　and　that　of　an　extensive　farmer；　is　too　great　for　being　passed　over；　whereas；　in　the　system　of　cultivation　on　the　small　scale；　a　labourer　may　succeed；　by　his　little　economy；　in　acquiring　a　small　farm　or　a　small　metairie；　from　this　he　may　pass　to　a　greater；　and　from　that　to　every　thing。　The　same　causes　have　suppressed　all　the　intermediate　stages　in　other　departments　of　industry。　A　gulf　lies　between　the　day…labourer　and　every　enterprise　of　manufacture　or　trade；　as　well　as　farming；　and　the　lower　classes　have　now　lost　that　help　which　sustained　them　in　a　former　period　of　civilization。　Parish　aids；　which　are　secured　to　the　day…labourer；　increase　his　dependence。　In　such　a　state　of　suffering　and　disquietude；　it　is　not　easy　to　preserve　the　feeling　of　human　dignity；　or　the　love　of　freedom；　and　thus　at　the　highest　point　of　modern　civilization；　the　system　of　agriculture　approximates　to　that　of　those　corrupt　periods　of　ancient　civilization；　when　the　whole　labour　of　the　field　was　performed　by　slaves。　　　　　The　state　of　Ireland；　and　the　convulsions　to　which　that　unhappy　country　is　continually　exposed；　show　clearly　enough　how　important　it　is　for　the　repose　and　security　of　the　rich　themselves；　that　the　agricultural　class；　which　forms　the　great　majority　of　a　nation；　should　enjoy　conveniences；　hope；　and　happiness。　The　Irish　peasants　are　ready　to　revolt；　and　plunge　their　country　into　the　horrors　of　civil　war；　they　live　each　in　a　miserable　hut；　on　the　produce　of　a　few　beds　of　potatoes；　and　the　milk　of　a　cow；　more　unhappy；　at　the　present　day；　than　the　cottagers　of　England；　though　possessing　a　small　property；　of　which　the　latter　are　destitute。　In　return　for　their　allotted　portion　of　ground；　they　merely　engage　to　work　by　the　day；　at　a　fixed　wage；　on　the　farm　where　they　live；　but　their　competition　with　each　other　has　forced　them　to　be　satisfied　with　a　wage　of　the　lowest　possible　kind。　A　similar　competition　will　act　likewise　against　the　English　cottagers。　There　is　no　equality　of　strength　between　the　day…labourer；　who　is　starving；　and　the　farmer；　who　does　not　even　lose　the　revenue　of　his　ground；　by　suppressing　some　of　his　habitual　operations；　and　hence　the　result　of　such　a　struggle　between　the　two　classes；　is　constantly　a　sacrifice　of　the　class　which　is　poorer；　more　numerous；　and　better　entitled　to　the　protection　of　law。　　　　　Rich　proprietors　generally　find　that　for　themselves　large　farms　are　more　advantageous　than　small　ones。　The　small　farmer　rarely　employs　a　capital　sufficient　even　for　his　little　cultivation；　himself　is　always　so　near　to　ruin；　that　he　must　begin　by　ruining　the　ground。　And　certainly；　in　counties　where　the　different　systems　of　cultivation　are　practically　set　in　opposition　to　each　other；　it　is　granted　that　land　is　ruined　by　letting　it　on　lease；　and　reimproved　by　cultivating　it　with　servants　or　metayers。　It　is　not；　therefore；　small　farms；　but　metairies；　which　ought　to　be　compared　with　large　farms。　Cultivation　on　the　great　scale；　spares　much　time　which　is　lost　in　the　other　way；　it　causes　a　greater　mass　of　work　to　be　performed　in　the　same　time；　by　a　given　number　of　men；　it　tends；　above　all；　to　procure　from　the　employment　of　great　capitals　the　profit　formerly　procured　from　the　employment　of　numerous　workmen；　it　introduces　the　use　of　expensive　instruments；　which　abridge　and　facilitate　the　labour　of　man。　It　invents　machines；　in　which　the　wind；　the　fall　of　water；　the　expansion　of　steam；　are　substituted　for　the　power　of　limbs；　it　makes　animals　execute　the　work　formerly　executed　by　men。　It　hunts　the　latter　from　trade　to　trade；　and　concludes　by　rendering　their　existence　useless。　Any　saving　of　human　strength　is　a　prodigious　advantage；　in　a　colony；　where　the　supernumerary　population　may　always　be　advantageously　employed。　Humanity　justly　solicits　the　employment　of　machines　to　aid　the　labour　of　the　negroes；　who　cannot　perform　what　is　required　of　them；　and　who　used　to　be　incessantly　recruited　by　an　infamous　commerce。　But　in　a　country　where　population　is　already　too　abundant；　the　dismissal　of　more　than　half　the　field…labourers　is　a　serious　misfortune；　particularly　at　a　time　when　a　similar　improvement　in　machinery　causes　the　dismissal　of　more　than　half　the　manufacturing　population　of　towns。　The　nation　is　nothing　else　but　the　union　of　all　the　individuals　who　compose　it；　and　the　progress　of　its　wealth　is　illusory；　when　obtained　at　the　price　of　general　wretchedness　and　morality。　　　　　Whilst；　in　England；　the　peasantry　are　hastening　to　destruction；　their　condition　is　improving　in　France；　they　are　gathering　strength；　and　without　abandoning　manual　labour；　they　enjoy　a　kind　of　affluence；　they　unfold　their　minds；　and　adopt；　though　slowly；　the　discoveries　of　science。　But　in　France；　the　peasants　are　mostly　proprietors：　the　number　of　those　who　cultivate　their　own　lands　prodigiously　increased　in　the　revolution；　and　to　this　cause　must　be　attributed　the　rapid　progress　which　agriculture　is　making　in　that　country；　in　spite　of　a　long　war　and　heavy　contributions。　Perhaps　England　might　partly　obtain　a　similar　advantage；　if　these　vast　commons　were　shared　among　her　cottagers；　to　whom　the　charm　of　property　would　thus　be　restored。　　　　　The　most　industrious　provinces　of　France　are；　at　this　time；　experiencing　the　unlooked　…　for　effects　of　dividing　property　among　its　true　cultivators；　we　mean　the　distribution　of　great　farms　among　the　contiguous　peasantry；　by　a　great　number　or　particular　contacts。　A　large　proprietor　now　rarely　gives　his　farm　to　be　cultivated　by　a　single　person；　he　finds　it　infinitely　more　advantageous；　at　present；　to　share　his　domain　among　a　number　of　neighbouring　peasants；　each　of　whom　takes　as　much　land　as　is　requisite　to　occupy　him　all　the　year。　No　doubt；　the　peasant　will　generally　sacrifice　the　land　which　he　farms；　to　that　which　is　his　property；　but　both　those　portions　are　cultivated　with　the　ardour　which　a　direct　interest　excites　in　the　labourer　and　with　the　intelligence　which　is　developed　in　him；　now　that　his　lord　can　no　longer　oppress　him。　The　agricultural　classes　are　as　happy　as　the　political　circumstances　of　a　country；　loved　with　enthusiasm；　permit　them　to　be。　　　　　To　conclude　our　review　of　the　systems；　by　which　territorial　wealth　is　incessantly　renewed；　we　ought　yet　to　bestow　a　moment　of　attention　on　the　system　of　emphyteuses　or　perpetual　farms；　the　most　suitable　of　all　when　government　has　grants　of　land　to　make。　　　　　In　other　systems　of　cultivation；　the　agriculturist　acquires　all　the　fruit　of　his　annual　advances；　but　he　can　never　be　sure　of　profiting　from　those　irredeemable　advances　by　which　a　perpetual　value　is　added　to　land；　from　drainings；　plantations；　and　breaking　up　of　the　soil。　Proprietors；　of　themselves；　are　seldom　enabled　to　make　such　advances。　If　they　sell　the　land；　the　purchaser；　in　order　to　acquire　it；　must　surrender　that　very　capital；　with　which　he　might　have　made　those　improvements。　The　lease　of　emphyteusis　or　plantation；　which　is　the　proper　meaning　of　the　word；　was　thus　a　very　useful　invention；　as　by　it　the　cultivator　engaged　to　break　up　a　desert；　on　condition　of　acquiring　the　dominium　utile　of　it　for　ever；　whilst　the　proprietor　reserved　for　himself　an　invariable　rent　to　represent　the　dominium　directum。　No　expedient　could　more　happily　combine；　in　the　same　individual；　affection　for　property；　with　zeal　for　cultivation；　or　more　usefully　employ；　in　improving　land；　the　capital　destined　to　break　it　up。　Although　this　kind　of　lease　is　known　in　England　under　the　name　of　freehold　for　many　lives；　and　though　it　is　even　of　great　importance　in　this　kingdom；　as　the　right　of　voting　in　county　elections　depends　upon　it；　its　beneficial　influence　has　chiefly　been　experienced　in　Italy；　where　it　is　named　livello。　In　the　latter　country；　it　has　restored　to　the　most　brilliant　state　of　cultivation　whole　provinces；　which　had　been　allowed　to　run　waste。　It　cannot；　however；　become　a　universal　mode　of　cultivation；　because　it　deprives　the　direct　proprietor　of　all　the　enjoyment　of　property；　exposing　him　to　all　the　inconveniences；　with　none　of　the　advantages；　in　the　condition　of　the　capitalist；　and　because　the　father　of　a　family　can　never　be　looked　upon　as　prudent　or　economical；　when　he　thus　alienates　his　property　for　ever；　without　at　least　retaining　the　disposal　of　the　price　to　be　received　in　exchange　for　it。　　　　　For　re…producing　territorial　wealth；　it　is　sufficient；　in　general；　that　the　use　of　the　ground　be　transmitted　to　the　industrious　man；　who　may　turn　it　to　advantage；　whilst　the　property　of　it　continues　with　the　rich　man；　who　has　no　longer　the　same　incitements　or　the　same　fitness　for　labour；　and　who　thinks　only　of　enjoyment。　The　national　interest；　however。　sometimes　also　requires　that　property　itself　shall　pass　into　hands　likely　to　make　a　better　use　of　it。　It　is　not　for　themselves　alone　that　the　rich　elicit　the　fruits　of　the　earth；　it　is　for　the　whole　nation；　and　if；　by　a　derangement　in　their　fortune；　they　suspend　the　productive　power　of　the　country；　it　concerns　the　whole　nation　to　put　their　property　under　different　managers。　Personal　interest　is；　indeed；　sufficient　to　bring　about　this　transmission；　provided　the　law　offers　no　obstacle。　When　a　soldier　comes　to　inherit　a　machine　for　making　stockings；　he　does　not　keep　it　long；　in　his　hands；　the　machine　is　useless　for　himself　and　the　nation；　in　the　hands　of　a　stocking…maker　it　would　be　productive；　both　for　the　nation　and　the　individual。　Both　feel　this；　and　a　bargain　is　soon　struck。　The　soldier　receives　money；　which　he　well　knows　how　to　employ；　the　stocking…maker　receives　possession　of　his　frame；　and　production　recommences。　Most　of　our　European　laws　respecting　immovable　property；　are　like　a　law　made　to　hinder　the　soldier　from　parting　with　the　frame；　of　whose　use　he　is　ignorant。　　　　　The　value　of　land　cannot　be　unfolded；　except　by　employing　a　capital　sufficient　to　procure　the　accumulation　of　that　labour　which　improves　it。　Hence；　it　is　essential　to　the　very　existence　of　a　nation　that　its　land　be　always　in　the　hands　of　those　who　can　devote　capital　to　its　cultivation。　If　it　were　not　in　any　case　allowed　to　sell　a　workman's　implement；　it　would　not；　certainly；　at　least；　be　forbidden　to　make　new　ones　for　the　use　of　new　workmen；　but　new　lands　cannot　be　made；　and　so　often　as　the　law　prevents　the　alienation　of　an　estate　by　one　that　cannot　use　it；　so　often　does　it　suspend　the　most　essential　of　all　productions。　　　　　The　systems　of　cultivation；　which　we　have　now　glanced　over　in　review；　certainly　cause　the　earth　to　produce；　by　the　hands　of　temporary　cultivators；　when　the　permanent　advances　have　been　made；　but　they　absolutely　discourage　such　cultivators　from　making　those　permanent　advances　which；　as　they　give　a　perpetual　value　to　property；　cannot　be　laid　out