political economy-第11章

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aking　those　permanent　advances　which；　as　they　give　a　perpetual　value　to　property；　cannot　be　laid　out　except　by　those　with　whom　that　property　is　destined　to　continue。　Legislators　in　general；　altogether　occupied　with　preventing　the　alienation　of　immovables；　and　preserving　great　fortunes　in　great　families；　have　dreaded　lest　such　an　alienation　might　clandestinely　be　brought　about　by　a　lease；　for　a　long　term；　and　without　return。　They　have　eagerly　attempted　to　defend　the　rights　of　proprietors　against　proprietors　themselves；　they　have　guided　that　class　of　people　by　forfeits　and　resolutory　clauses；　they　have　fixed　upon　a　short　term　for　farm　leases；　they　seem　continually　repeating　to　the　cultivator：　〃This　land；　on　which　you　work；　is　not　yours；　acquire　not　too　much　affection　for　it；　make　no　advances　which　you　might　run　the　risk　of　losing；　improve　the　present　moment；　if　you　can；　but　think　not　of　the　future；　above　all；　beware　of　labouring　for　posterity。〃　　　　　Besides；　independently　of　legislative　errors；　it　belongs　to　the　very　nature　of　a　farm　lease　never　to　allow　the　farmer　to　take　as　much　interest　in　the　land　as　its　proprietor。　It　is　enough　that　this　lease　must　have　an　end；　to　induce　the　farmer；　as　this　end　approaches；　to　care　less　about　his　fields；　and　to　cease　laying　out　money　for　improving　them。　The　metayer；　with　smaller　power；　at　least　never　fears　to　improve　the　land　committed　to　him　as　much　as　possible；　because　the　conditions　of　his　lease　are　invariable；　and　he　is　never　dismissed　except　for　bad　behaviour。　The　farmer；　again；　is　liable　to　be　dismissed　directly　in　consequence　of　his　good　management。　The　more　he　has　improved　his　farm；　the　more　will　his　landlord；　at　renewing　the　lease；　be　disposed　to　require　an　augmentation　of　rent；　and；　besides；　as　part　nf　the　advances　laid　out　by　the　cultivator；　on　the　ground；　create　a　perpetual　value；　it　is　neither　just　nor　natural　that　they　should　be　made　by　one　whose　interest　is　merely　temporary。　The　farmer　will　carefully　attend　to　the　fields　and　meadows；　which；　in　a　few　years；　are　to　give　him　back　all　his　advances；　but　he　will　plant　few　orchards；　few　high　forests　in　the　north；　few　vineyards　in　the　south；　he　will　make　few　canals　for　navigation；　irrigation；　or　draining；　he　will　transport　little　soil　from　one　place　to　another；　he　will　clear　little　ground；　he　will　execute；　in　short；　few　of　those　works　which　are　most　conducive　to　the　public　interest；　because　they　found　the　wealth　of　posterity。　　　　　None　of　those　labours；　on　which　the　increase　of　the　whole　national　subsistence　depends；　can　be　undertaken；　save　by　a　proprietor；　rich　in　movable　capital。　It　is　not　the　preservation　of　great　fortunes　that　concerns　the　nation；　but　the　union　of　territorial　fortunes　with　circulating　ones。　The　fields　do　not　flourish　in　the　hands　of　those　who　have　already　too　much　wealth　to　watch　over　them；　but　in　the　hands　of　those　who　have　enough　of　money　to　bring　them　into　value。　Territorial　legislation　ought；　therefore；　without　ceasing；　to　strive　that　movable　capital　be　united　with　fixed；　property　which　we　call　personal　with　property　which　we　call　real。　Legislation；　over　almost　all　the　world；　has　striven　to　do　quite　the　contrary。　　　　　And　first；　it　were　always　for　the　national　advantage；　and　favourable　to　the　increase　of　its　production；　that　the　proprietor；　whenever　his　fortune　is　embarrassed；　should　sell　his　property；　instead　of　borrowing　on　it；　yet；　on　the　contrary；　facilities　have　been　held　out　to　him　for　borrowing；　rather　than　for　sale。　A　particular　system　of　law　has　been　created　for　territorial　debts；　marked　differences　have　been　established　between　real　and　personal　property；　the　rank　of　creditors　on　land　has　been　regulated　according　to　their　date；　whilst　an　absolute　equality　prevails　among　creditors　of　all　dates；　who　claim　only　on　movable　property。　And　thus　thousands　of　law…suits　have　been　created；　interminable　difficulties　have　been　started；　and　the　time　is　almost　come　when　half　the　lands　of　Europe　are　possessed　by　a　people　who　far　from　possessing　the　power　to　dispose　of　a　capital　that　might　increase　their　productiveness；　on　the　contrary；　are　debtors　by　a　pretty　large　capital；　which　they　cannot　extract　from　those　funds。　Hence　those　embarrassed　proprietors　have　incessantly　had　recourse　to　ruinous　expedients　not　to　put　money　on　their　lands；　but　to　take　it　off；　to　borrow　of　their　farmers；　to　diminish　the　funds　of　cultivation；　to　sell　their　woods；　and　deteriorate　their　estates。　If　the　law　had　given　no　preference　to　territorial　creditors；　if；　on　the　other　hand　it　had　given　as　much　facility　to　a　creditor　for　selling　an　immovable　property；　as　for　making　seizure　of　a　movable　one；　especially；　if；　in　protecting　personal　liberty；　sacrificed　too　slightly；　it　had　permitted　lands　to　be　sold　as　often　as　it　now　permits　the　debtor　to　be　put　in　prison　…　most　old　debts　would　be　extinguished；　and　those　immovable　possessions；　which　ought　to　support　the　nation；　would　be　in　the　hands　of　such　as　could　force　them；　by　capital　and　labour；　to　furnish　the　means　of　subsistence。　　　　　But　the　props　lent　to　the　pride　of　family　by　entails；　fideicommissa；　primogenitures；　and　the　laws　invented　to　hinder　families　in　a　ruinous　condition　from　selling　their　property；　have　still　further　impeded　the　development　of　agriculture　and　industry。　The　legislator　aimed　at　fixing　fortune　in　great　families：　he　has　fixed　beggary　and　want　in　them。　On　pretext　of　securing　the　patrimony　of　children；　he　has　forbidden　the　heir　of　entail　to　sell　or　borrow　with　a　sufficient　security　to　his　creditors；　but　he　could　not　hinder　him　from　going　to　ruin；　and　overwhelming　himself　with　clamorous　debts。　In　that　case；　even　the　care　of　his　honour；　the　feeling　of　justice；　and　his　own　security；　oblige　him　to　employ　all　the　resources　of　his　mind；　all　his　industry　in　destroying　his　patrimony；　that　he　may　obtain　the　disposal　of　what　law　has　reserved　to　his　heir。　Whatever　produce　he　can　detach　from　the　ground　without　replacing　it；　whatever　advance　he　can　dispense　with　laying　out；　is；　in　his　eyes；　just　so　much　profit；　and　Europe　has　come　to　see　the　proprietors　of　noble　estates；　almost　everywhere；　the　enemies　of　their　property。　At　the　same　time；　if　the　legislator's　object　was　the　preservation　of　families；　he　has　failed　in　this　object；　because　entails　condemn　all　the　sons　of　a　rich　family　to　idleness；　the　elder　out　of　pride；　the　younger　out　of　inability。　The　system　has　proscribed　all　from　industry；　the　sole　mean　of　increasing　property；　whilst　it　leaves　them　subject　to　all　human　chances；　which　never　cease　to　attack　whatever　is　ancient；　and　which　must　always；　in　the　end；　destroy　whatever　opulence　is　not　renewed。

Chapter　4

Of　Commercial　Wealth

　　　　By　labour　man　drew　his　first　wealth　from　the　earth；　but　scarcely　had　he　satisfied　his　primitive　wants；　when　desire　made　him　conceive　other　enjoyments；　not　to　be　obtained　without　the　aid　of　his　fellows。　Exchanges　began。　They　extended　to　whatever　had　any　value；　to　whatever　could　produce　any；　they　comprised　mutual　services　and　labour；　no　less　than　the　fruit　of　labour；　and　gave　room　to　the　formation　and　increase　of　a　new　kind　of　wealth；　which　was　no　longer　measured　by　the　wants　of　him　who　produced　it；　but　by　the　wants　of　all　those　with　whom　he　might　transact　exchanges；　…　with　whom　he　might　carry　on　commerce；　and　hence　we　have　named　it　commercial　wealth。　　　　　The　solitary　man　was　used　to　labour　for　his　own　wants；　and　his　consumption　was　the　measure　of　his　production；　he　fitted　out　a　place　to　produce　him　provisions　for　a　year；　for　two　years　perhaps；　but　afterwards　he　did　not　indefinitely　augment　it。　It　was　enough　to　renew　the　process；　so　as　to　maintain　himself　in　the　same　condition；　and；　if　he　had　time　to　spare；　he　laboured　at　acquiring　some　new　enjoyment；　at　satisfying　some　other　fancy。　Society　has　never　done　any　thing　by　commerce；　except　sharing　among　all　its　members　what　the　isolated　man　would　have　prepared　solely　for　himself。　Each　labours；　in　like　manner；　to　provide　for　all；　during　a　year；　two　years；　or　more；　each　labours；　afterwards；　to　keep　up　this　provision；　according　as　consumption　destroys　a　part　of　it；　and　since　the　division　of　labour　and　the　improvement　of　arts　allow　more　and　more　work　to　be　done；　each；　perceiving　that　he　has　already　provided　for　the　reproduction　of　what　has　been　consumed；　studies　to　awaken　new　tastes　and　new　fancies　which　he　may　satisfy。　　　　　But　when　a　man　laboured　for　himself　alone；　he　never　dreamt　of　those　fancies；　till　he　had　provided　for　his　wants；　his　time　was　his　revenue；　his　time　formed　also　his　whole　means　of　production。　There　was　no　room　to　fear；　that　the　one　would　not　be　exactly　proportioned　to　the　other；　that　he　would　ever　work　to　satisfy　an　inclination　that　he　did　not　feel；　or　which　he　valued　less　than　a　want。　But　when　trade　was　introduced；　and　each　no　longer　laboured　for　himself；　but　for　an　unknown　person；　the　different　proportions　subsisting　between　the　desire　and　what　could　satisfy　it；　between　the　labour　and　the　revenue；　between　production　and　consumption；　were　no　longer　equally　certain；　they　were　independent　of　each　other；　and　every　workman　was　obliged　to　regulate　his　conduct　by　guessing　on　a　subject；　concerning　which　the　most　skilful　had　nothing　but　conjectural　information。　　　　　The　isolated　man's　knowledge　of　his　own　means　and　his　own　wants；　required　to　be　replaced　by　a　knowledge　of　the　market；　for　which　the　social　man　was　labouring；　of　its　demands　and　its　extent。　　　　　The　number　of　consumers；　their　tastes；　the　extent　of　their　consumption；　and　their　income；　regulate　the　market　for　which　every　producer　labours。　Each　of　these　four　elements　is　variable；　independently　of　the　rest；　and　each　of　their　variations　accelerates　or　retards　the　sale。　The　number　of　consumers　may　decrease；　not　only　by　sickness　or　war；　but　also　by　obstacles　which　policy　may　place　in　the　way　of　their　communication；　or　by　the　avarice　of　new　sellers。　Their　tastes　may　be　changed　by　fashion：　an　extraordinary　consumption　of　one　kind　of　merchandize；　brought　about　by　some　public　calamity；　may　have　reduced　them　to　be　frugal　in　all　the　rest；　and　finally；　their　income　may　diminish　without　a　diminution　of　their　number；　and　with　the　same　wants；　the　same　means　of　satisfying　them　may　no　longer　exist。　Such　revolutions　in　the　market　are　difficult　to　know　with　precision；　difficult　to　calculate；　and　their　obscurity　is　greater　for　each　individual　producer；　because　he　but　imperfectly　knows　the　number　and　means　of　his　rivals；　the　merchants；　who　are　to　sell　in　competition　with　him。　But　one　single　observation　serves　him；　instead　of　all　them：　he　compares　his　price　with　that　of　the　buyer；　and　this　comparison；　according　to　the　profit　or　loss　which　it　offers　him；　is　a　warning　to　increase　or　diminish　his　production；　for　the　following　year。　　　　　The　producer　establishes　his　price　according　to　what　the　merchandise　has　cost；　including　his　profit；　which　ought　to　be　proportional　to　what　might　be　obtained　in　any　other　kind　of　industry。　The　price　must　be　sufficient　to　repay　the　workmen's　wages；　the　rent　of　the　land；　or　the　interest　on　the　fixed　capitals　employed　in　production；　the　raw　materials　wrought　by　him；　with　all　the　expenses　of　transport；　and　all　the　advances　of　money。　When　all　these　reimbursements；　calculated　at　the　mean　rate　of　the　country；　are　themselves　repaid　by　the　last　purchaser；　the　producti