political economy-第12章

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alculated　at　the　mean　rate　of　the　country；　are　themselves　repaid　by　the　last　purchaser；　the　production　may　continue　on　the　same　footing。　If　the　profits　rise　above　the　mean　rate；　the　producer　will　extend　his　enterprizes；　he　will　employ　new　hands　and　fresh　capital；　and；　striving　to　benefit　by　this　extraordinary　profit；　he　will　soon　reduce　it　to　the　common　level。　If　the　buyer；　on　the　other　hand；　pays　a　price　too　low　for　compensating　all　the　producer's　reimbursements；　the　latter　will；　of　course；　seek　to　reduce　his　production；　but　this　change　will　not　be　so　easy　as　the　other。　The　workmen　employed　by　him；　rather　than　abandon　what　gains　their　bread；　consent　to　work　at　a　lower　price；　for　less　even　than　the　necessaries　of　life。　Fixed　capitals；　moreover；　cannot　be　put　to　another　use；　he　will　content　himself　with　a　smaller　profit；　and　continue　to　work　with　them　till　they　produce　next　to　nothing。　Lastly；　the　manufacturer　himself　must　live　by　his　industry；　and　never　willingly　abandons　it：　he　is　ever　disposed　to　attribute　the　decline　of　his　last　year's　trade　to　accidental　causes；　and　the　less　he　has　gained；　the　less　is　he　willing　to　retire　from　business。　Thus　production　continues　almost　always　longer　than　demand；　unless　the　manufacturer　has；　of　his　own　accord；　renounced　his　business　to　attempt　a　new　one。　　　　　The　buyer's　price；　an　the　other　hand；　is　fixed　by　competition。　He　does　not　inquire　what　the　article　costs；　but　what　are　the　terms　on　which　he　may　obtain　another　to　serve　in　its　stead；　he　addresses　himself　to　various　merchants；　who　offer　him　the　same　commodity；　and　bargains　with　him　who　will　sell　the　cheapest；　or　else　he　considers　which　will　suit　him　best；　among　several　articles　of　a　different　nature；　but　capable　of　being　substituted　for　each　other。　As　each　is　occupied　solely　with　his　own　private　interest；　each　tends　to　the　same　object：　all　the　buyers；　on　one　hand；　all　the　sellers　on　the　other；　act　as　if　in　concert：　the　sums　asked；　and　the　sums　offered；　are　brought　to　an　equilibrium；　and　the　mean　price　is　established。　　　　　The　seller's　price　should　enable　him　to　reproduce　the　article　sold；　with　a　profit；　under　the　same　condition；　in　the　same　place。　His　market；　therefore；　extends　to　every　country　where　the　mean　price　established　by　commerce　is　no　smaller　than　his。　His　production　is　not　limited　by　the　consumption　of　neighbors　or　countrymen；　it　is　regulated　by　the　whole　number　of　those　who；　whatever　country　they　inhabit；　find　an　advantage　in　purchasing　his　goods；　or　for　whom　his　producing　price　is　not　superior　to　the　buying　price。　It　is　this　which　properly　constitutes　the　extent　of　market。　　　　　As　the　division　of　labour　incessantly　augments　its　productive　powers；　and　the　increase　of　capitals　daily　obliges　the　merchant　to　seek　new　employment　for　industry；　and　try　new　manufactures；　the　producer　feels　no　interest　more　pressing　than　that　of　extending　his　market。　If　he　cannot　find　new　places　of　sale；　it　will　neither　suit　him　to　enlarge　his　manufactory；　when　his　capital　has　been　increased　by　saving；　nor　to　improve　his　fabrication　by　performing　more　work　with　the　same　machinery；　or　the　same　number　of　hands。　The　whole　progress　of　his　fortune　depends　on　the　progress　of　his　sale。*　　　　　Among　the　causes　which　augment　this　sale；　the　first　is　the　discovery　of　such　an　economy　in　labour　as　may　enable　the　manufacturer　to　sell　cheaper　than　his　brethren；　and　to　get　possession　of　their　custom：　he　will　sell　more；　but　they　will　sell　less。　The　consumers　will　make　a　light　saving；　yet；　if　both　are　subjects　of　the　same　state；　the　difference　in　regard　to　the　national　interest　will　not　be　great。　The　distress　of　those　producers；　who　have　lost　their　custom；　and　who；　probably；　will　lose　a　considerable　part　of　their　capital　by　selling　their　wares　too　cheap；　and　abandoning　their　former　machinery；　will　perhaps　counterbalance　the　profit　of　purchasers。　　　　　As　policy　is　wont　to　comprise　the　obligation　of　social　duties　within　the　circle　of　our　countrymen；　the　mutual　rivalship　of　foreign　producers　has　more　openly　displayed　itself。　They　have　striven　to　exclude　each　other　from　the　markets；　where　they　came　in　competition；　by　selling　at　a　cheaper　rate。　Every　national　discovery；　which　allows　the　producers　of　one　country　to　sell　cheaper　than　those　of　other　countries；　inevitably　increases　the　former's　production　at　the　latter's　expense；　and　the　profit　of　this　saving　is　shared　between　producers　who　extend　their　market；　and　consumers　who　provide　for　their　wants　at　a　smaller　expense。　Yet　if　a　single　manufacturer　has　succeeded　in　making　this　saving；　which　extends　his　market；　or　if　the　exclusive　use　of　it　is　secured　to　him　by　patent；　his　countrymen。　also　manufacturers；　against　whom　he　has　made　this　successful　competition；　must　support　all　the　loss　of　it；　whilst　himself　and　the　foreign　consumer　share　all　the　profit。　In　an　age；　when　communication　among　different　counties　is　easy；　when　all　the　sciences　are　applied　to　all　the　arts；　discoveries　are　soon　divined　and　copied；　and　a　nation　cannot　long　retain　an　advantage　in　manufacturing　which　it　owes　but　to　a　secret；　so　that　the　market；　extended　for　a　moment　by　a　fall　in　the　price；　is　very　soon　shut　up；　and　if　the　general　consumption　is　not　increased；　the　production　is　not　so　either。　　　　　Sale　is　extended　also；　and　in　a　more　lasting　manner；　when　the　cheapness　of　the　thing　produced　brings　it　within　the　reach　of　a　new　class　of　consumers；　a　very　sensible　diminution　of　the　price　may　often　produce　this　effect。　Thus　glass　windows　were　at　one　time　confined　to　palaces；　they　are　found　at　the　present　time　in　the　meanest　huts。　Consumption　is　in　that　case　truly　increased；　each　nation　gains　doubly　by　it；　manufacturers　have　extended　their　labour；　the　poor　have　acquired　a　new　enjoyment。　　　　　The　increase　of　population；　and　of　national　wealth；　contributes　to　extend　the　market；　in　a　manner　still　more　advantageous。　Yet　every　conceivable　increase　of　population　and　of　wealth；　does　not；　of　necessity；　extend　the　market；　it　is　only　such　an　increase　as　attends　the　increased　comforts　of　the　most　numerous　class。　When　cultivation　on　the　great　scale　has　succeeded　cultivation　on　the　small；　more　capital　is　perhaps　absorbed　by　land；　and　re…produced　by　it；　more　wealth　than　formerly　may　be　diffused　among　the　whole　mass　of　agriculturists；　but　the　consumption　of　one　rich　farmer's　family；　united　to　that　of　fifty　families　of　miserable　hinds；　is　not　so　valuable　for　the　nation；　as　that　of　fifty　families　of　peasants；　no　one　of　which　was　rich；　but　none　deprived　of　an　honest　competence。　So　also　in　towns；　the　consumption　of　a　manufacturer　worth　a　million；　under　whose　orders　are　employed　a　thousand　workmen；　reduced　to　the　bare　necessaries　of　life；　is　not　so　advantageous　for　the　nation；　as　that　of　a　hundred　manufacturers　far　less　rich；　who　employ　each　but　ten　workmen　far　less　poor。　It　is　very　true；　that　ten　thousand　pounds　of　income；　whether　they　belong　to　a　single　man；　or　to　a　hundred；　are　all　equally　destined　for　consumption；　but　this　consumption　is　not　of　the　same　nature。　A　man；　however　rich；　cannot　employ　for　his　use　an　infinitely　greater　number　of　articles　than　a　poor　man；　but　he　employs　articles　infinitely　better；　he　requires　work　far　better　finished；　materials　far　more　precious；　and　brought　from　a　far　greater　distance。　It　is　he　who　especially　encourages　the　perfection　of　certain　workmen；　that　finish　a　small　number　of　objects　with　extreme　skill；　it　is　he　who　pays　them　an　exorbitant　wage。　It　is　he　also　that　especially　rewards　such　workmen　as　we　have　named　unproductive；　because　they　procure　for　him　nothing　but　fugitive　enjoyments；　which　can　never　by　accumulation　form　part　of　the　national　wealth；　and　whilst　the　effect　of　increasing　capital　is　generally　to　concentrate　labour　in　very　large　manufactories；　the　effect　of　great　opulence　is　almost　entirely　to　exclude　the　produce　of　those　large　manufactories　from　the　consumption　of　the　opulent　man。　The　diffusion　of　wealth；　therefore；　still　more　than　its　accumulation；　truly　constitutes　national　prosperity；　because　it　keeps　up　the　kind　of　consumption　most　favourable　for　national　re…production。　　　　　The　manufacturer's　market　may；　in　the　last　place；　be　extended；　by　what　forms　the　noblest　wish　of　a　statesman；　the　progress　of　civilization；　comfort；　security；　and　happiness；　among　barbarous　nations。　Europe　has　arrived　at　such　a　point；　that；　in　all　its　parts；　there　is　to　be　found　an　industry；　a　quantity　of　fabrication；　superior　to　its　wants；　but　if　false　policy　did　not　incessantly　induce　us　to　arrest　the　progress　of　civilization　among　our　neighbours；　if　Egypt　had　been　left　in　the　hands　of　a　people　requiring　the　arts　of　Europe；　if　Turkey　were　extricated　from　the　oppression　under　which　it　groans；　if　our　victories　over　the　inhabitants　of　Barbary　had　been　profitably　employed　in　giving　back　the　coasts　of　Africa　to　social　life；　if　Spain　had　not　again　been　yielded　to　a　despotism　which　destroys　and　ruins　her　population；　if　the　independents　of　America　were　protected；　so　that　they　might　be　allowed　to　enjoy　the　advantages　which　nature　offers　them；　if　the　Hindoos；　subject　to　Europe；　were　amalgamated　with　Europeans；　if　Franks　were　encouraged　to　settle　among　them；　in　place　of　being　repelled；　…　consumption　would　increase　in　these　different　counties；　rapidly　enough　to　employ　all　this　super…abundant　labour；　which　Europe　at　present　knows　not　how　to　dispose　of；　and　to　terminate　this　distress　in　which　the　poor　are　plunged。　　　　　The　more　superior　the　buyer's　price　is　to　the　seller's；　the　more　profit　does　trade　give　to　be　shared　among　the　trader；　and　all　those　whom　he　employs　in　the　transport　and　distribution　of　his　goods；　the　manufacturer；　and　all　those　whom　he　employs　in　the　production　of　them。　Hence　one　of　the　great　and　constant　objects　of　governments　has　been；　to　increase　this　difference；　that　their　manufacturers　might　be　enabled　to　produce　cheap；　and　so　find　many　buyers；　and　to　sell　dear　to　such　as　could　not　buy　elsewhere；　and　so　gain　a　large　profit。　The　progress　of　society　generally　enables　nations　to　produce　cheaper；　the　almost　ever　injudicious　protection　of　government　often　gives　them　means　of　selling　dearer。　　　　　The　low　price　of　workmanship　is　the　first　cause　of　manufacturing　profit；　but　this　low　price　is　never　a　national　advantage；　except　when　it　is　produced　by　superiority　of　climate；　greater　fertility　of　soil；　or　abundance　of　provision。　On　the　contrary；　when　it　arises　from　the　difficulty　of　communication；　which　prevents　cultivators　from　reaping　all　the　profit　of　their　wares；　it　can　only　be　regarded　as　a　private　advantage；　acquired　at　the　expense　of　the　national　advantage。　When　the　low　price　of　workmanship　arises　from　the　poverty　of　day…labourers；　forced　by　competition　to　content　themselves　with　what　is　necessary　for　life；　though　commerce　may　profit　by　the　circumstance；　it　is　nothing　better　than　a　national　calamity。　　　　　Abundance　of　capital；　and　the　consequence　of　this；　a　low　price　of　interest；　likewise　doubly　contribute　to　diminish　the　price　of　production。　With　more　capital；　the　manufacturer　and　merchant　transact　their　purchases　and　sales　at　a　more　favourable　moment；　they　are　not　pressed　by　either　operation；　or　compelled　to　provide　for　the　print　by　a　sacrifice　of　future　advantage。　Executing　all　kinds　of　labour　more　on　the　great　scale；　they　save　time；　and　all　those　incidental　charges；　which　ar