political economy-第13章

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　kinds　of　labour　more　on　the　great　scale；　they　save　time；　and　all　those　incidental　charges；　which　are　the　same　for　a　great　and　for　a　small　sum。　But　as　to　the　saving　made　by　the　merchant　on　the　interest　of　money；　it　is　made　at　the　expense　of　a　particular　class；　deriving　their　revenue　from　trade；　it　does　not　enrich　the　nation　any　more　than　the　diminution　of　wages　enriched　it；　it　only　gives　to　one　what　it　takes　from　another。　　　　　The　increasing　division　of　labour　forms；　as　we　have　seen；　the　chief　cause　of　increase　in　its　productive　powers；　each　makes　better　what　he　is　constantly　engaged　in　making；　and　when；　at　length；　his　whole　labour　is　reduced　to　the　simplest　operation；　he　comes　to　perform　it　with　such　ease　and　rapidity；　that　the　eye　cannot　make　us　comprehend　how　the　address　of　man　should　arrive　at　such　precision　and　promptitude。　Often　also　this　division　leads　to　the　discovery；　that　as　the　workman　is　now　worth　nothing　more　than　a　machine；　a　machine　may　in　fact　supply　his　place。　Several　important　inventions　in　mechanics　applied　to　the　arts；　have　thus　sprung　from　the　division　of　labour；　but；　by　the　influence　of　this　division；　man　has　lost　in　intelligence　all　that　he　has　gained　in　the　power　of　producing　wealth。　　　　　It　is　by　the　variety　of　its　operations　that　our　soul　is　unfolded；　it　is　to　procure　citizens　that　a　nation　wishes　to　have　men；　not　to　procure　machines　At　for　operations　a　little　more　complicated　than　those　performed　by　fire　or　water。　The　division　of　labour　has　conferred　a　value　on　operations　so　simple；　that　children；　from　the　tenderest　age；　are　capable　of　executing　them；　and　children；　before　having　developed　any　of　their　faculties；　before　having　experienced　any　enjoyment　of　life；　are　accordingly　condemned　to　put　a　wheel　in　motion；　to　turn　a　spindle；　to　empty　a　bobbin。　More　lace；　more　pins；　more　threads；　and　cloth　of　cotton　or　silk；　are　the　fruit　of　this　great　division　of　labour；　but　how　dearly　have　we　purchased　them；　if　it　is　by　this　moral　sacrifice　of　so　many　millions　of　human　beings！　　　　　The　employment　of　machinery　in　place　of　men；　has　contributed　generally　to　lessen　the　price　of　production。　At　the　renovation　of　arts　and　civilization；　there　was　so　much　work　to　be　done；　and　so　few　hands　to　do　it；　oppression　had　so　far　reduced　the　poor　class；　there　remained　so　much　uncultivated　land　in　the　country；　so　many　ill…supplied　trades　in　towns；　and　sovereigns　required　so　many　soldiers　for　war；　that　it　seemed　workmanship　could　never　be　economized　enough；　since　an　artisan；　sent　away　from　one　trade；　would　always　find　ten　others　ready　to　receive　him。　Circumstances　are　not　now　the　same；　our　labour　is　scarcely　sufficient　for　the　labourers。　We　shall　endeavour；　in　another　place；　to　explain　the　cause　of　this　fact；　in　the　mean　time；　surely　none　will　maintain　that　it　can　be　advantageous　to　substitute　a　machine　for　a　man；　if　this　man　cannot　find　work　elsewhere；　or　that　it　is　not　better　to　have　the　population　composed　of　citizens　than　of　steam…engines；　even　though　the　cotton　cloth　of　the　first　should　be　a　little　dearer　than　that　of　the　second。　　　　　The　application　of　science　to　art　is　not　limited　to　the　invention　of　machinery；　its　result　is　the　discovery　of　raw　materials；　dyeing　ingredients；　preservative　methods　more　sure　and　economical。　It　has　produced　better　work　at　a　cheaper　rate；　it　has　protected　the　health　of　labourers；　as　well　as　their　produce；　and　its　effect　in　augmenting　wealth　has　almost　always　been　beneficial　to　humanity。　　　　　Finally；　the　different　quarters　of　the　globe　possess　advantages　of　climate；　soil；　exposure；　which　not　only　render　the　subsistence　of　man　more　easy　or　cheaper；　but　also　place　within　his　reach　certain　raw　materials；　which　other　nations　cannot　procure　at　the　same　price。　Hence　results　in　their　favour　a　kind　of　monopoly；　which　they　exercise　over　others；　and　of　which　it　is　rare　that　they　do　not　take　advantage。　There　is　also；　in　some　degree；　a　natural　advantage　in　the　superiority　of　the　people　itself；　in　certain　climates；　the　bounty　of　nature　seems　to　have　reserved　for　those　who　inhabit　them　a　superiority　of　industry；　intelligence；　strength　of　body；　or　constancy　in　labour；　which　do　not　even　require　to　be　developed　by　education。　　　　　But　other　qualities；　other　virtues；　which　appear　to　contribute　more　effectually　still　to　the　increase　of　riches；　as　well　as　to　the　happiness　of　society　…　the　love　of　order；　economy；　sobriety；　justice　…　are　almost　always　the　work　of　public　institutions。　Religion；　education；　government；　and　principles　of　honour；　change　the　nature　of　men；　and　as　they　make　good　or　bad　citizens　of　them；　they　advance　or　retard　their　approach　to　the　object　proposed　by　political　economy。　　　　　But　governments　have　rarely　been　satisfied　with　such　advantages　as　the　trade　of　their　states　might　owe　to　nature；　or　to　the　progress　of　society。　They　have　attempted　to　favour　the　increase　of　commercial　wealth；　and　their　different　expedients　have　most　frequently　tended　to　assist　the　merchant　in　selling　dear；　rather　than　producing　cheap。　With　the　latter　object；　however；　we　have　seen　the　exportation　of　raw　materials　prohibited；　the　rate　of　interest　fixed；　and　laws　enacted　to　lower　the　wages　of　labour。　　　　　These　three　expedients　had　a　common　fault；　that　of　sacrificing　one　class　to　another；　and　founding　the　profit　of　trade；　not　on　the　advantage　of　consumers；　but　on　the　loss　of　cultivators；　capitalists；　or　workmen；　so　that　its　profits；　far　from　being　an　increase　of　the　national　wealth；　were　a　displacement　of　it。　The　raw　materials　on　which　the　arts　operate；　are　all；　or　nearly　all；　produced　by　agriculture　or　at　least　drawn　from　the　ground；　hence　they　form　part　of　the　proprietor's　or　the　cultivator's　wealth。　If　some　advantage　did　not　arise　from　exporting　them；　nobody　would　think　of　forbidding　them　to　be　exported。　This　prohibition　indicates　sufficiently；　that　the　persons　who　produced　them　were　better　paid；　or　gained　more　by　selling　them　to　strangers；　and　the　law　restricts　their　market；　in　opposition　to　the　principle　which　we　have　pointed　out　above；　as　the　foundation　of　commercial　interest；　the　principle　of　obtaining　for　each　article　of　produce　the　highest　possible　price。　From　such　prohibitions　to　export；　there　must　result；　first；　a　diminution　in　the　price　of　the　raw　material；　for　its　price　is　no　longer　kept　up　by　free　trade；　secondly；　a　diminution　in　the　quantity　produced；　because　it　is　regulated　by　the　interior　demand；　and　lastly；　a　deterioration　of　its　quality；　for　a　calling　which　is　ill　rewarded；　is　likewise　ill　attended　to。　This；　therefore；　is　one　of　the　most　injudicious　means　of　favouring　trade；　and　at　the　same　time；　it　sacrifices　the　income　of　all　those　who　contribute　to　produce　the　raw　material。　Whatever　trade　gains　from　them；　cannot　be　considered　as　adding　aught　to　the　national　revenue。　　　　　To　fix　the　interest　of　money；　or　to　suppress　it　altogether；　as　some　legislators　have　attempted；　has；　generally　been　the　consequence　of　religious　prejudices；　and　of　mad　attempts　to　adapt　the　Jewish　legislation　to　modern　Europe。　The　effect　of　these　laws；　so　opposite　to　the　general　interest；　has　always　been　either　to　force　contractors　to　envelop　themselves　in　a　secrecy　which　they　must　require　payment　for；　and　may　use　as　a　snare　for　the　unsuspiciousness　of　others；　or　else　to　force　capitalists　to　employ；　in　other　counties；　that　capital　which　they　could　not　lend　in　their　own　neighborhood；　with　the　same　safety　and　advantage。　But　the　very　end　which　legislators　proposed　was　bad；　a　diminution　in　the　rent　of　the　national　capital；　is　a　national　evil；　it　is　a　loss　of　part　of　the　revenue。　Most　frequently；　indeed；　this　evil　is　the　sign　of　an　advantage　greatly　superior　to　it；　namely；　the　increase　of　capitals　themselves；　but；　in　forcibly　producing　the　sign；　we　cannot　at　all　forcibly　produce　the　thing；　any　more　than　by　turning　round　the　pointers　of　a　watch　we　can　alter　the　flight　of　time。　　　　　Attempts　on　the　part　of　government　to　fix　the　rate　of　wages；　to　make　workmen　labour　at　a　lower　price；　are　ever　the　most　impolitic　and　the　most　unjust　of　these　partial　laws。　If　government　should　propose；　as　an　object；　the　advantage　of　any　one　class　in　the　nation　at　the　expense　of　the　rest；　this　class　ought　to　be　precisely　the　class　of　day…labourers。　They　are　more　numerous　than　any　other；　and　to　secure　their　happiness　is　to　make　the　greatest　portion　of　the　nation　happy。　They　have　fewer　enjoyments　than　any　other；　they　obtain　less　advantage　than　any　other　from　the　constitution　of　society；　they　produce　wealth；　and　themselves　obtain　scarcely　any　share　of　it。　Obliged　to　struggle　for　subsistence　with　their　employers；　they　are　not　a　match　for　them　in　strength。　Masters　and　workmen　are　indeed　mutually　necessary　to　each　other；　but　the　necessity　weighs　daily　on　the　workman；　it　allows　respite　to　his　master。　The　first　must　work　that　he　may　live；　the　second　may　wait　and　live　for　a　time　without　employing　workmen。　Hence　in　the　riots　and　combinations　of　workmen　for　obtaining　an　increase　of　wages；　their　conduct　is　often　violent　and　tumultuous；　and　often　merits　the　chastisement　which　it　never　fails　to　receive；　but　scarcely　an　instance　exists；　where　justice　has　not　been　upon　their　side。　　　　　The　expedients　invented　by　governments　to　assist　their　merchants　in　selling　dear；　are　numerous。　Some　tend　to　diminish　the　number　of　producers　in　a　market　of　given　extent；　and　therefore　to　force　buyers　to　raise　their　price；　such　are　apprenticeships；　corporations；　monopolies　granted　to　companies；　prohibitions　to　import；　exclusive　governments　of　colonies；　and　favours　obtained　by　treaties　of　commerce；　others；　such　as　bounties　and　drawbacks；　are　destined　really　to　extend　the　market；　though；　by　securing　to　the　manufacturer　a　profit　at　the　government's　expense；　not　the　consumer's。　　　　　The　regulations　of　apprenticeships　and　the　statutes　of　corporations；　were　destined；　it　is　said；　to　hinder　ignorant　workmen　from　following　any　trade　which　they　did　not　yet　understand；　they　were　forced　to　devote　a　determinate　number　of　years　to　learn　it；　and　afterwards　to　gain　admission　into　a　body　which　always　made　obstacles　to　the　entrance　of　new　comers；　and　limited　their　number。　The　pretence　of　thus　watching　over　the　training　of　artisans　cannot　be　made　good。　It　has　often　been　proved；　that　rivalship　alone　gives　that　training；　whilst　a　long　apprenticeship　blunts　the　mind　and　discourages　industry；　but　the　true；　though　secret　object；　to　diminish　the　number　of　those　exercising　a　trade；　was　attained。　The　corporate　body　exercised　a　kind　of　monopoly　against　the　consumer；　it　took　care　at　all　times　to　keep　the　supply　below　the　demand。　The　merchant　doubtless　gained　more；　but　he　gained　on　a　smaller　production。　There　was　less　work　done；　less　increase　of　capital；　less　population　supported；　and　as　to　the　merchant's　extraordinary　profit；　it　was　compensated　by　an　equal　loss　to　the　consumer；　who　was　obliged　to　pay；　not　according　to　his　own　advantage　or　convenience；　but　according　to　the　arbitrary　caprice　of　a　corporation　which　gave　laws　to　him。　　　　　In　all　trading　counties；　a　more　or　less　exclusive　monopoly　has　been　granted；　on　certain　occasions；　to　some　associations　of　merchants；　under　the　name　of　Trading　Companies。　The　avowed　motive　for　sacrificing　the　whole　class　to　this　privileged　number　was　the　particular　nature　of　the　trade　thus　subjected　to　a　monopoly；　which　trade　it