political economy-第14章

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ivileged　number　was　the　particular　nature　of　the　trade　thus　subjected　to　a　monopoly；　which　trade　it　was　said　could　not　be　supported　except　by　very　extensive　funds；　but　governments　had　often　a　secret　motive　besides；　and　this　was；　the　sum　of　money　for　which　the　merchants　bought　their　privilege。　A　company's　monopoly　has　never　failed　to　heighten　the　price　for　the　consumer；　to　diminish　production　and　consumption；　to　give　the　national　capital　a　false　direction；　sometimes　by　attracting　it　prematurely　to　a　branch　of　trade　which　was　not　yet　suitable；　sometimes　by　repelling　it　when　fruitlessly　seeking　an　employment。　But　although　companies　obtained　the　desired　privilege　of　buying　cheap　and　selling　dear；　by　nature　they　are　so　ill　suited　for　economy　and　trading　speculations；　that　although　amazingly　rich；　and　sometimes　sovereigns　of　counties；　these　companies；　their　administrators　having　no　immediate　interest　in　the　prosperity　of　their　trust；　have　almost　all　been　robbed；　and　very　few　of　them　have　not　ended　in　bankruptcy。　　　　　These　different　expedients　for　the　protection　of　commerce；　are　now　generally　decried；　though　almost　all　governments　yet　agree　in　repelling　from　their　states　the　produce　of　foreign　manufactories；　or　at　least　in　loading　it　with　heavy　duties；　to　give　the　national　produce　an　advantage。　The　prohibitive　system　of　custom…house　duties　plainly　gives　to　a　growing　manufactory　an　advantage　equivalent　to　the　largest　bounty。　Perhaps　this　manufactory　scarcely　produces　the　hundredth　part　of　what　the　nation　consumes　of　such　commodities；　but　the　hundred　purchasers　must　compete　with　each　other　to　obtain　the　one　seller's　preference；　and　the　ninety…nine　rejected　by　him　will　be　compelled　to　obtain　goods　by　smuggling。　In　this　case；　the　nation's　loss　will　be　as　a　hundred；　its　gain　as　one。　Whatever　advantage　may　arise　from　giving　a　new　manufacture　to　a　nation；　certainly　there　are　few　which　deserve　such　a　sacrifice　and　even　these　might　always　be　set　a…going　by　less　expensive　means。　Besides；　we　must　also　take　into　account　the　weighty　inconveniences　of　establishing　the　vexatious　system　of　duties；　of　covering　the　frontiers　with　an　army　of　customhouse　officers；　and　with　another　not　less　dangerous　army　of　smugglers；　and　thus　of　training　the　subjects　to　disobedience。　We　must　remember；　above　all；　that　it　is　not　the　interest　of　a　nation　to　produce　every　thing　indifferently；　that　it　ought　to　confine　its　efforts　to　such　goods　or　commodities　as　it　can　manufacture　at　the　cheapest　rate；　or　to　such　as；　whatever　price　they　cost；　are　essential　to　its　safety。　It　ought　to　be　recollected　that　each　merchant　knows　his　own　business　better　than　government　can　do；　that　the　whole　nation's　productive　power　is　limited；　that　in　a　given　time；　it　has　but　a　given　number　of　hands；　and　a　given　quantity　of　capital；　that　by　forcing　it　to　enter　upon　a　kind　of　work　which　it　did　not　previously　execute；　we　almost　always　at　the　same　time　force　it　to　abandon　a　kind　of　work　which　it　did　execute：　whilst　the　most　probable　result　of　such　a　change　is　the　abandonment　of　a　more　lucrative　manufacture　for　another　which　is　less　so；　and　which　personal　interest　had　designedly　overlooked。　　　　　If　the　prohibitive　system　gives　a　very　powerful；　though　very　expensive　encouragement　to　rising　manufactures；　it　can　offer；　in　regard　to　such；　no　advantage　to　those　which　are　already　prosperous；　the　sacrifice　at　least　which　it　imposes　on　consumers；　is　entirely　useless。　If　the　manufacture　was　destined　for　exportation；　government；　by　granting　a　monopoly　of　the　interior　market；　causes　it　to　abandon　its　ancient　habits　to　assume　others　which　probably　are　less　advantageous。　Every　manufacture　destined　for　exportation　gives　proof　of　not　fearing　the　competition　of　foreigners。　From　the　moment　that　it　can　support　competition　abroad；　notwithstanding　the　expense　of　transport；　it　has　still　less　reason　to　dread　this　competition　in　the　very　place　of　production。　Thus　nothing　is　more　common　than　to　see　goods　prohibited　which　never　could　have　been　imported　with　advantage；　and　which　gained　credit　solely　by　being　so　prohibited。　　　　　By　the　prohibitive　system；　governments　had　proposed　to　increase　the　number　and　productive　powers　of　their　manufactures。　It　is　doubtful　if　they　rightly　knew　the　price　they　paid　for　this　advantage；　and　the　prodigious　sacrifices　they　imposed　on　consumers；　their　subjects；　to　bring　into　existence　an　unborn　class　of　producers；　but　they　succeeded　much　more　rapidly　even　than　speculators　on　political　economy　expected。　For　a　time　they　excited　the　bitterest　complaints　on　the　part　of　consumers；　but　even　these　complaints　ceased　afterwards；　because　sacrifices　in　fact　had　also　ceased；　and　manufactures　so　powerfully　encouraged；　had　soon　provided　with　profusion　for　the　national　wants。　But　this　emulation　of　all　governments　to　establish　manufactures　every　where；　has　produced　two　strange　and　unexpected　effects　on　the　commercial　system　of　Europe；　one　is　the　disproportionate　increase　of　production　without　any　relation　to　consumption；　the　other　is　the　effort　of　each　nation　to　live　isolated；　to　suffice　for　itself；　and　refuse　every　kind　of　foreign　trade。　　　　　Before　governments　had　been　seized　with　this　manufacturing　ardour；　the　establishment　of　a　new　manufacture　had　always　to　struggle　with　a　crowd　of　national　habits　and　prejudices；　which　form　as　it　were　the　vis　inertiae　of　the　human　mind。　To　overcome　this　force；　it　was　necessary　to　offer　speculators　a　very　manifest　advantage；　hence　a　new　species　of　industry　could　scarcely　arise　without　a　distinct　previous　demand；　and　the　market　was　always　found　before　the　manufacture　destined　to　occupy　it。　Governments；　in　their　zeal；　have　not　proceeded　upon　this　principle；　they　have　ordered　stockings　and　hats　beforehand；　reckoning　that　legs　and　heads　would　be　found　afterwards。　They　have　seen　their　people　well　and　economically　clothed　by　strangers；　and　yet　have　caused　them　to　produce　clothes　in　the　country　itself。　During　war；　this　new　production　was　not　capable　of　being　too　exactly　appreciated；　but　when　peace　came；　it　was　found　that　all　things　had　been　made　in　double　quantity；　and　the　readier　the　mutual　communication　of　states　had　become；　the　more　embarrassed　were　they　to　dispose　of　all　their　works　executed　without　orders。　　　　　Consumers　who　at　the　beginning　had　been　satisfied；　afterwards　found　themselves　called　to　unexpected　gains；　because　merchants；　eager　to　recover　their　funds；　were　forced　to　sell　a　very　great　quantity　of　goods　with　loss。　Manufacturers　gave　the　signal　for　these　sacrifices；　resigning　themselves　to　a　cruel　loss　of　their　capital；　they　induced　extensive　merchants　to　furnish　themselves　with　goods　beyond　their　custom　or　ability；　in　order　to　profit　by　what　appeared　a　good　opportunity。　Several　of　the　latter　have　been　forced　to　experience　a　similar　loss；　before　their　excessive　supply　could　be　introduced　to　the　shops　of　retail　dealers；　and　these　again　before　they　could　make　them　be　accepted　by　consumers。　A　universal　embarrassment　was　felt　by　manufacturers；　merchants；　and　retailers；　and　this　was　followed　by　the　annihilation　of　the　capital　destined　to　support　industry。　The　fruit　of　long　saving　and　long　labour　was　lost　in　a　year。　Consumers　have　gained　certainly；　but　their　gain　is　scarcely　perceptible　even　to　themselves。　By　laying　up　a　stock　of　goods　for　several　years　to　profit　by　their　cheapness；　they　have　also　included　themselves　in　the　general　embarrassment；　and　still　farther　retarded　the　period　when　the　balance　can　be　re…established　between　consumption　and　production。　　　　　According　to　the　former　organization　of　Europe；　all　states　did　not　make　pretences　to　all　kinds　of　industry。　Some　had　attached　themselves　to　agriculture；　others　to　navigation；　others　to　manufactures；　and　the　condition　of　these　latter；　even　in　prosperous　times；　could　not　have　appeared　so　worthy　of　envy　as　to　demand　prodigious　efforts　to　attain　it。　A　miserable　and　degraded　population　almost　always　produced　these　rich　stuffs；　these　elegant　ornaments；　this　furniture　which　it　was　never　destined　to　enjoy　and　if　the　men　who　directed　these　unhappy　workmen　sometimes　raised　immense　fortunes；　those　fortunes　were　as　frequently　destroyed。　The　development　of　nations　proceeds　naturally　in　all　directions；　it　is　scarcely　ever　prudent　to　obstruct　it；　but　it　is　no　less　dangerous　to　hasten　it；　and　the　governments　of　Europe；　by　having　of　all　hands　attempted　to　force　nations；　are　at　the　present　day　loaded　with　a　population；　which　they　have　created　by　requiring　superfluous　labour；　and　which　they　know　not　how　to　save　from　the　horrors　of　famine。　　　　　The　existence　of　this　manufacturing　population；　and　the　duty　of　providing　for　its　wants；　have　constrained　governments　to　alter　the　aim　of　their　legislation。　Formerly；　in　the　real　spirit　of　the　mercantile　system；　they　encouraged　manufactures；　in　order　to　sell　much　to　foreigners；　and　grow　rich　at　their　expense；　now；　perceiving　that　a　prohibitive　system　is　every　where　adopted；　or　like　to　be　adopted；　they　cannot　any　longer　count　on　the　custom　of　strangers；　and　therefore　study　to　find；　in　their　own　kingdom；　consumers　for　their　own　workmen；　in　other　words；　to　become　isolated　and　sufficient　for　themselves。　The　system　of　policy　at　present；　more　or　less　strictly　followed　by　all　the　nations　of　Europe；　destroys　all　the　advantages　of　commerce；　it　hinders　each　nation　from　profiting　by　the　superiorities　due　to　its　climate；　to　its　soil；　to　its　situation；　to　the　peculiar　character　of　its　people；　it　arms　man　against　man；　and　breaks　the　tie　which　was　destined　to　sooth　national　prejudices；　and　accelerate　the　civilization　of　the　world。　　　　　According　to　the　natural　progress　of　increasing　wealth；　when　capitals　are　yet　inconsiderable；　it　is　certainly　desirable　to　direct　them　rather　to　some　neighbouring　branch　of　trade；　than　to　one　which　is　very　remote；　and　as　the　trade　of　exportation　and　importation　gives　foreigners　one　half　of　its　profit；　and　the　natives　another；　a　country　which　has　little　capital　may　desire　to　employ　it　entirely　in　the　trade　of　its　interior；　or　for　its　own　use；　and　the　more　so；　because　if　the　market　is　near　the　producer；　the　same　capital　will　be　several　times　renewed　in　a　given　period；　whilst　another　capital；　destined　for　a　foreign　market；　will　scarcely　accomplish　a　single　renewal。　But　the　capitalist's　interest　will　always　direct　him　with　certainty；　in　such　cases　to　do　what　suits　the　country　best；　because　his　profit　is　proportioned　to　the　need　there　is　of　it；　and　consequently　to　the　direction　in　which　the　public　demand　carries　him。　　　　　Besides；　nations；　on　reckoning　up　their　produce　and　their　wants；　almost　constantly　forget　that　neighboring　foreigners　are　much　more　convenient　and　more　advantageous　producers　and　consumers　than　distant　countrymen。　The　relation　of　markets　on　the　two　banks　of　the　Rhine　is　much　more　important；　both　for　the　German　and　the　French　merchant；　than　the　relation　of　markets　between　the　Palatinate　and　Brandenburgh　is　for　the　former；　or　between　Alsace　and　Provence　for　the　latter。　　　　　The　ardour；　with　which　all　governments　have　excited　every　species　of　production；　by　means　of　their　restrictive　system；　has　brought　about　such　a　disproportion　between　labour　and　demand；　that　perhaps　it　has　become　necessary　for　every　state　to　think　first；　not　of　the　comfort；　but　of　the　existence　of　its　subjects；　and　to　maintain