political economy-第15章

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ery　state　to　think　first；　not　of　the　comfort；　but　of　the　existence　of　its　subjects；　and　to　maintain　those　barriers　which　have　been　so　imprudently　erected。　An　important　part　of　the　population　might；　perhaps；　be　cut　off　by　penury；　in　the　course　of　a　few　years；　and　it　is　reasonable　that　each　state　should　seek　to　preserve　itself　and　those　depending　on　it　from　such　a　calamity。　Yet；　we　cannot　without　pain；　behold　the　rivetting　of　this　anti…social　system；　and　the　abandonment　of　that　ancient　spirit　of　commerce；　which　triumphed　over　barbarism；　and　taught　hostile　hordes　to　know　and　esteem　each　other。　　　　　Governments；　after　having　attempted　to　give　the　national　producers　a　monopoly　in　their　own　country；　have　sometimes　endeavoured　to　procure　them　a　similar　advantage　in　foreign　countries；　by　treaties　of　commerce。　Such　actions；　always　subordinate　to　policy；　granted　to　a　favoured　nation　an　exemption　from　some　part　of　the　duties　required　from　others；　on　consideration　of　some　reciprocal　advantage。　It　cannot　be　doubted　that　such　an　exemption　was　advantageous　to　the　nation　in　whose　favour　it　was　granted；　but；　on　the　other　hand；　it　was　just　as　disadvantageous　to　the　nation　granting　it；　and　when　a　treaty　of　commerce　bore　a　concession　of　mutual　exemption；　each　state　should　have　discovered；　that　a　monopoly　granted　to　its　producers　was　too　dearly　purchased　by　a　monopoly　granted　to　foreigners；　against　its　consumers：　and　the　more　so；　as　there　existed　no　kind　of　relation　between　the　two　favoured　branches　of　trade。　Some　show　of　reason　may　be　discovered；　why　the　consumers　of　cloth　should　be　taxed　for　the　advantage　of　cloth　manufacturers；　but　there　is　no　shallow　of　reason　why　the　consumers　of　wine　in　England　should　experience　a　loss；　in　compensation　for　an　advantage　to　the　sellers　of　goods　in　Portugal。　　　　　No　treaty　of　commerce　can　fully　satisfy　the　greediness　of　merchants　desiring　a　monopoly；　and　therefore　governments　invented　the　fanatic　expedient　of　creating　in　a　colony　a　nation　expressly　to　be　purchasers　from　their　merchants。　The　colonists　were　prohibited　from　establishing　any　manufacture　at　home；　that　so　they　might　be　more　dependent　on　the　mother　country。　They　were　carefully　prevented　from　following　any　species　of　foreign　trade；　they　were　subjected　to　regulations　the　most　vexatious；　and　contrary　to　their　own　interests；　not　for　the　mother　country's　good；　but　for　the　good　of　a　small　number　of　merchants。　The　infinite　advantages　attached　to　a　new　country；　where　every　kind　of　labour　is　profitable；　because　every　thing　is　yet　to　do；　enabled　colonies　to　prosper；　although　they　were　continually　sacrificed。　As　their　raw　produce　was　fit　for　a　distant　trade；　they　had　it　in　their　power　to　support　a　most　unequal　exchange；　in　which　nothing　was　taken　from　them　that　the　buyer　could　procure　at　home；　but　their　rapid　increase　itself　bears　witness　against　the　system　which　has　founded　them；　they　have　prospered　by　a　system　diametrically　opposite　to　that　followed　by　the　mother　country。　The　exportation　of　all　raw　produce；　the　importation　of　all　wrought　produce；　has　been　encouraged　in　colonies；　and　have　presented　to　such　as　believe　in　the　existence；　and　calculate　the　state；　of　a　commercial　balance；　a　result　as　disadvantageous　for　themselves；　as　it　was　advantageous　for　the　mother　country。　Doubtless；　their　oppression　gave　the　latter　all　the　profits　of　a　monopoly；　yet；　in　a　very　circumscribed　market；　whilst　the　free　trade　of　all　Europe；　with　all　its　colonies；　would　have　been　more　advantageous　for　both；　by　infinitely　extending　the　market　of　the　one；　and　accelerating　the　progress　of　the　other。　What　justice　and　policy　should　have　taught；　force　will　obtain；　and　the　colonial　system　cannot　long　continue。　　　　　Governments；　in　the　last　place；　to　favour　commerce；　have　granted　it　bounties　and　drawbacks。　A　bounty　is　a　reward　which　the　state　decrees　to　the　manufacturer；　on　account　of　his　goods；　which　comes　to　him　in　the　shape　of　profit。　A　drawback　is　a　restitution　of　all　the　taxes；　which　a　piece　of　goods　had　paid；　granted　to　it　at　the　moment　of　its　exportation。　A　drawback　is　perfectly　just　and　reasonable。　It　leaves　the　national　producer；　in　the　foreign　market；　on　a　footing　of　equality　with　all　his　rivals；　whilst；　if　beforehand　be　had　paid　a　tax　in　his　own　country；　he　could　not　have　sustained　the　competition。　Bounties　are　the　strangest　encouragements　which　a　government　can　give。　They　may　be　justified　when　granted　for　the　fabrication　of　an　article；　the　production　of　which　it　is　necessary　to　procure　at　any　price：　but　when　granted　on　exported　goods；　as　often　happens；　government　pays　merchants；　at　the　expense　of　its　own　subjects；　that　foreigners　may　buy　cheaper　than　them。　　　　　Thus；　nearly　all　the　favours　which　governments　confer　on　trade　and　manufactures；　are　contrary　even　to　sound　policy　or　justice；　and；　judging　of　them　by　the　law　of　profit　and　loss；　we　should　infer；　that　all　this　attention；　bestowed　by　government　on　trade；　had　done　more　ill　than　good。　But　political　economy　is；　in　great　part；　a　moral　science。　After　having　calculated　the　interests　of　men；　it　ought　also　to　foresee　what　will　act　upon　their　passions。　Ruled；　as　they　are；　by　self…interest；　pointing　out　their　advantage　will　not　be　sufficient　to　determine　their　pursuit　of　it。　Nations　have　sometimes　need　of　being　shaken；　as　it　were；　to　be　roused　from　their　torpor。　The　small　weight　which　would　suffice　to　incline　the　balance；　with　a　calculating　people；　is　not　sufficient　when　that　balance　is　rusted　by　prejudice　and　long　continued　habits。　In　such　a　case；　a　skilful　administration　must　occasionally　submit　to　allow　a　real　and　calculable　loss；　in　order　to　destroy　an　old　custom；　or　change　a　destructive　prepossession。　When　rooted　prejudices　have　abandoned　to　disrespect　every　useful　and　industrious　profession；　when　a　nation　thinks　there　can　be　no　dignity　except　in　noble　indolence；　when　even　men　of　science　themselves；　carried　away　by　public　opinion；　blush　at　the　useful　applications　made　of　their　discoveries；　and　in　such　applications　see　nothing　but　what　they　call　the　cookery　of　their　sciences；　it　perhaps　becomes　necessary　to　grant　favours；　altogether　extraordinary；　to　the　industry　which　it　is　necessary　to　create；　to　fix　incessantly　the　thoughts　of　a　too　lively　people　on　the　career　of　fortune　which　lies　before　them；　intimately　to　connect　the　discoveries　of　science　with　those　of　art；　and　to　excite　the　ambition　of　those　who　have　always　lived　in　idleness；　by　fortunes　so　brilliant　as；　at　length；　to　make　them　think　of　what　may　be　accomplished　by　their　wealth　and　their　activity。　　　　　It　is　true；　the　mercantile　capital　of　a　nation　is　limited　in　a　given　time；　and　those　who　dispose　of　it；　always　desiring　to　put　it　out　to　the　greatest　advantage；　have　no　need　of　any　new　stimulant　to　augment　it；　or　turn　it　into　the　channels　where　it　best　produces　profit。　But　all　the　capital　of　a　nation　is　not　mercantile。　Inclination　to　idleness；　which　public　institutions　have　fostered　among　certain　nations；　not　only　binds　men；　but　also　fetters　fortunes。　The　same　indolence；　which　makes　those　people　lose　their　time；　makes　them　also　lose　their　money。　The　annual　revenue　of　territorial　fortunes　forms　of　itself　an　immense　capital；　which　may　be　added　to　or　deducted　from　the　sum　devoted　to　support　industry。　In　southern　counties；　the　whole　revenue　of　the　nobility　was　annually　dissipated　in　useless　pomp；　but　to　recall　the　heads　of　noble　families　into　activity　has　likewise　been　found　sufficient　to　give　them　habits　of　economy。　The　great　French　or　Italian　proprietor；　becoming　manufacturer　has；　at　once；　given　a　useful　direction　to　the　revenue　of　his　land；　by　adding　his　own　activity　to　that　of　a　nation　becoming　more　industrious；　and　added　likewise　all　the　power　of　his　wealth；　which　formerly　lay　unemployed。　　　　　The　torpor　of　a　nation　may　sometimes　be　so　great；　that　the　clearest　demonstration　of　advantages；　which　it　might　derive　from　a　new　species　of　industry；　shall　never　induce　it　to　make　the　attempt。　Example；　alone；　can　then　awake　self…interest。　French　industry　has　found；　in　the　single　little　state　of　Lucca；　more　than　ten　new　branches；　to　employ　itself　upon；　with　great　advantage　both　for　the　country　and　those　who　engaged　in　them。　The　most　absolute　liberty　was　not　sufficient　to　direct　attention　to　these　objects。　The　zeal　and　activity　of　the　princess　Eliza；　who　called　into　her　little　sovereignty　several　head…manufacturers；　who　furnished　them　with　money　and　houses；　who　brought　the　produce　of　their　shops　into　fashion；　has　founded　a　more　durable　prosperity　in　a　decaying　city；　and　restored　to　a　beneficent　activity　much　capital　and　intellect；　which；　but　for　her；　would　forever　have　remained　unemployed。　　　　　When　government　means　to　protect　commerce；　it　often　acts　with　precipitation；　in　complete　ignorance　of　its　true　interests；　almost　always　with　despotic　violence；　which　tramples　under　foot　the　greater　part　of　private　arrangements；　and　almost　always　with　an　absolute　forgetfulness　of　the　advantage　of　consumers；　who；　as　they　form　by　far　the　most　numerous　class；　have　more　right　than　any　other　to　confound　their　well…being　with　that　of　the　nation。　Yet　it　must　not　be　inferred；　that　government　never　does　good　to　trade。　It　is　government　which　can　give　habits　of　dissipation　or　economy；　which　can　attach　honour　or　discredit　to　industry　and　activity；　which　can　turn　the　attention　of　scientific　men　to　apply　their　discoveries　to　the　arts：　government　is　the　richest　of　all　consumers；　it　encourages　manufactures　by　the　mere　circumstance　of　giving　them　its　custom。　If　to　this　indirect　influence　it　join　the　care　of　rendering　all　communications　easy；　of　preparing　roads；　canals；　bridges；　of　protecting　property；　of　securing　a　fair　administration　of　justice；　if　it　do　not　overload　its　subjects　with　taxation　in　levying　the　taxes；　it　adopt　no　disastrous　system；　…　it　will　effectually　have　served　commerce；　and　its　beneficial　influence　will　counterbalance　many　false　measures；　many　prohibitory　laws；　in　spite　of　which；　and　not　by　reason　of　which；　commerce　will　continue　to　increase　under　it。

Chapter　5

Of　Money

　　　　Wealth　incessantly　circulates　from　producers　to　consumers；　by　means　of　money。　All　kinds　of　exchange　are　accomplished　under　this　form；　whether　the　means　of　producing　wealth　are　transmitted　from　one　proprietor　to　another；　or　when　land　or　movable　capital　changes　its　owner；　or　when　labour　is　sold；　or　when　the　object　destined　to　be　consumed　reaches　the　hands　that　are　to　use　it。　Money　facilitates　all　these　exchanges；　it　occurs　among　the　different　contractors　as　a　thing　which　all　desire；　and　by　means　of　which　every　one　may　find　what　he　immediately　requires；　as　a　thing；　moreover；　submitted　to　invariable　calculation；　and　by　means　of　which　all　other　values　may　be　appreciated；　this　alone　being　their　scale。　　　　　Money　performs　several　functions　at　once：　it　is　the　sign　of　all　other　values；　it　is　their　pledge　and　also　their　measure。　As　a　sign；　money　represents　every　other　kind　of　wealth；　by　transmitting　it　from　hand　to　hand　we　transmit　a　right　to　all　other　values。　It　is　not　money　itself　which　the　day…labourer　requires；　but　food；　clothing；　lodging；　of　which　it　is　the　sign。　It　is　not　for　money　that　the　manufacturer　wishes　to　exchange　his　produce；　but　for　raw　materials；　that　he　may　again　begin　to　work；　and　for　objects　of　consumption；　that　he　may　begin　to　enjo