political economy-第16章

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aterials；　that　he　may　again　begin　to　work；　and　for　objects　of　consumption；　that　he　may　begin　to　enjoy。　It　is　not　money　which　the　capitalist　lends　the　merchant　to　profit　by；　it　is　all　that　the　merchant　will　purchase　with　this　money　immediately　afterwards；　for　so　long　as　the　merchant　keeps　it　in　the　original　shape；　he　can　draw　no　advantage　from　it；　and　his　capital　will　not　begin　its　course　of　production　till　the　money　is　out　of　his　hands。　By　an　abuse　of　language；　which　has　caused　much　error　and　confusion；　the　words　money　and　capital　have　become　almost　synonymous：　money　indeed　represents　all　other　capital；　but　it　is　itself　the　capital　of　no　man；　it　is　always　barren　by　nature；　and　wealth　does　not　begin　to　increase；　till　after　money　has　left　the　hands　of　its　possessor。　　　　　Money　is　not　only　the　sign　of　wealth；　it　is　also　the　pledge　of　it。　It　not　only　represents　wealth；　it　contains　the　worth　of　it。　Like　wealth；　it　has　been　produced　by　a　labour　which　it　wholly　compensates。　In　work　and　advances　of　all　sorts　employed　in　extracting　it　from　the　mine；　it　has　cost　a　value　equal　to　what　it　passes　for　in　the　world。　It　furnishes　to　trade　a　commodity　which　is　expensive；　because　purchased　like　every　other；　it　is　the　sole　kind　of　wealth　which　is　not　increased　by　circulation；　or　dissipated　by　enjoyment。　It　issues；　still　without　alteration　from　the　hands　of　him　who　employs　it　usefully；　and　of　him　who　squanders　it　upon　his　pleasures。　But　the　high　price　at　which　society　acquires　money；　though　at　first　view　it　appears　an　inconvenience；　is　precisely　what　gives　it　the　merit　of　being　an　imperishable　pledge　for　its　possessors。　As　its　value　was　not　given　by　arbitrary　convention；　arbitrary　convention　cannot　take　its　value　away。　It　may　be　more　or　less　sought　after　according　as　it　occurs　more　or　less　abundantly　in　the　market；　but　its　price　can　never　deviate　very　far　from　what　would　be　required　to　extract　an　equal　quantity　from　the　mine。　　　　　Money；　in　the　last　place；　is　a　common　measure　of　values。　Before　the　invention　of　money；　it　must　have　been　very　difficult　to　compare　the　value　of　a　bag　of　corn　with　that　of　a　yard　of　cloth。　Dress　was　equally　necessary　with　food；　but　the　processes　by　which　men　procured　them；　seemed　scarcely　susceptible　of　being　compared。　Money　has　furnished　a　common　and　invariable　unity　to　which　every　thing　can　be　referred。　Nations；　who　are　not　acquainted　with　the　use　of　metals；　have；　nevertheless；　so　felt　the　advantages　of　this　common　measure　that　they　have　formed　an　ideal　unity；　to　which　they　refer　every　kind　of　value。　　　　　The　important　part　which　money　performs　in　political　economy；　and　the　various　properties　by　which　it　animates　exchanges；　and　protects　and　serves　to　measure　them；　explain　the　illusion　which　has　misled；　not　only　the　vulgar；　but　even　the　greater　part　of　statesmen；　and　exhibited　this　commodity　in　their　eyes　as　the　efficient　cause　of　labour；　and　the　creator　of　all　wealth。　It　is　essential　for　us；　however；　to　pause　here；　that　we　may　both　display　those　errors　in　a　clear　point　of　view；　and　firmly　demonstrate　the　principles　which　follow。　In　the　epoch　of　civilization；　at　which　we　are　arrived；　no　labour　can　be　accomplished　without　a　capital　to　set　it　in　motion；　but　this　capital；　though　almost　constantly　represented　by　money；　is　yet　quite　a　different　thing。　An　increase　of　the　national　capital　is　the　most　powerful　encouragement　to　labour；　but　an　increase　in　the　circulating　medium　has　not　of　necessity　the　same　effect。　Capitals　co…operate　powerfully　in　the　annual　reproduction　of　wealth；　giving　rise　to　an　annual　revenue；　but　money　continues　barren；　and　gives　rise　to　no　revenue。　Indeed；　the　competition　between　those　capitals；　which　are　offered　to　accomplish　the　annual　labour　of　the　nation；　forms　the　basis　for　the　interest　of　money；　but　the　greater　or　less　abundance　of　the　circulating　medium；　has　no　influence　in　the　fixing　of　this　interest。　　　　　Painful　experience　has　shown　all　the　inhabitants　of　Europe　what　a　dearth　was；　and　a　period　of　general　penury　among　a　civilized　people。　At　these　mournful　epochs；　every　one　has　heard　it　a　hundred　times　observed；　that　it　was　not　corn　or　food　which　was　wanting；　but　money。　Indeed；　vast　magazines　of　corn　have　often　remained　full　till　the　next　harvest；　those　provisions；　if　proportionably　shared　among　the　people；　would　have　almost　always　been　sufficient　for　their　support；　but　the　poor；　having　no　money　to　offer；　were　not　able　to　buy　them；　they　could　not；　in　exchange　for　their　labour；　obtain　money；　or　at　least　enough　of　it；　to　subsist。　Money　was　wanting；　natural　wealth　superabundant。　What　phenomenon　could　appear　more　proper　to　confirm　the　universal　prejudice　which　looks　for　wealth　in　money；　not　in　consumable　capital？　　　　　But　the　money；　which　is　wanting　in　a　time　of　scarcity；　is　the　wage　offered　to　the　workman　to　make　him　labour。　the　wage；　by　means　of　which；　he　would　have　purchased　a　subsistence。　The　workmen　never　labour；　except　when　some　of　those　who　have　accumulated　capitals；　or　in　other　words；　the　fruit　of　preceding　labours；　can　profit　from　those　capitals；　by　furnishing；　on　one　hand；　the　raw　material；　on　the　other；　a　subsistence　for　the　artisan。　Labour　cannot　be　carried　on　so　as　to　produce　any　material　fruit；　any　fruit　capable　of　becoming　wealth；　without　raw　materials　on　which　to　operate；　the　workman　cannot　labour　without　food　to　support　him；　and；　therefore；　every　kind　of　labour　is　impossible　without　a　capital　previously　existing　in　objects　of　consumption；　to　furnish　his　materials　and　his　wages；　and；　if　the　workman　himself　lay　out　these　advances；　it　is　because　he　combines　for　this　little　object；　the　two　characters　of　capitalist　and　artisan。　　　　　As　the　workman　requires　a　capitalist；　so　the　capitalist　requires　workmen；　because　his　capital　will　be　unproductive　if　it　continue　idle；　and　the　revenue　which　he　expects　and　has　to　live　upon　springs　from　the　labour　which　he　causes　to　be　executed。　Hence；　whenever　he　is　occupied　in　a　productive　enterprise；　he　employs　all　his　capital　in　causing　labour；　and　leaves　no　part　of　it　in　idleness。　If　he　is　a　cloth…maker；　and　has　devoted　ten　thousand　pounds　to　his　manufacture；　he　does　not　stop　till　his　ten　thousand　pounds　are　done；　and　he　no　longer　has　new　sums　to　employ　in　the　operation。　If　it　be　then　asked　why　he　stops；　he　will　answer；　like　the　workman；　that　money　is　wanting；　that　money　does　not　circulate。　　　　　It　is　not；　however；　money　which　is　then　wanting　any　more　than　in　the　former　case；　it　is　consumption；　or　the　consumer's　revenue。　On　commencing　his　manufacture；　the　capitalist　studied　to　adjust　it　to　the　demand；　and　he　reckoned　that　as　soon　as　his　cloths　should　be　ready；　they　would　be　purchased　by　consumers；　whose　money；　the　sign　of　their　revenue；　would　replace　his　capital；　and　become　the　sign　of　subsistence　to　new　workmen；　to　whom　he　would　pay　new　wages。　It　is　not　money　which　the　consumer　is　in　want　of；　but　revenue。　Some　have　had　inferior　harvests　this　year；　some　have　gained　a　smaller　interest　on　their　capitals；　a　smaller　share　on　the　annual　re…production　of　the　fruits　of　industry；　others；　who　have　no　income　but　what　arises　from　their　labour；　have　not　found　employment；　or　else　the　whole　three　classes　are　not　poorer　than　they　were；　but　the　manufacturer　had　imagined　them　to　be　richer；　and　regulated　his　production　according　to　an　income　which　does　not　exist。　　　　　Income；　of　which　we　have　seen　all　the　different　sources　in　the　second　chapter；　is　a　material　and　consumable　thing；　it　springs　from　labour；　it　is　destined　for　enjoyment；　it　is　exactly　of　the　same　nature　with　the　advances　in　wages　and　raw　material　laid　out　by　the　manufacturer；　and　money　is　but　the　sign　and　the　measure　of　it。　The　capital　it　should　replace　is　also　composed　of　material　objects；　destined　for　consumption；　and　incessantly　renewed。　Money　serves　but　to　represent　it；　and　always　forms　the　smallest　part　of　each　merchant's　funds。　We　have　supposed　the　cloth…maker　to　possess　100；000　l。；　but；　it　half　this　sum　is　employed　in　fixed　capitals；　it　will　be　sufficient；　if　his　sale　amount　weekly　to　1200　l。　to　give　him；　in　the　shape　of　interest　and　profit；　20　per　cent。　on　his　circulating　capital；　and　to　allow　1000　l　weekly；　in　money；　to　maintain　an　annual　production　of　60；000　l。；　so　that　he　never　possesses　in　cash　more　than　the　fiftieth　part　of　his　circulating　capital。　　　　　An　increase　of　the　national　capitals　is　the　most　powerful　encouragement　of　labour；　either　because　this　augmentation　presupposes　an　augmentation　of　income；　and；　consequently；　of　means　of　consumption；　or　because　these　capitals；　not　being　profitable　to　their　proprietor；　except　as　they　are　employed；　each　capitalist　incessantly　endeavours　to　create　new　production　by　their　means。　In　distributing　them　to　his　workmen；　he　gives　to　those　workmen　revenue　which　enables　them　to　purchase　and　consume　the　preceding　year's　production；　and　he　sees　those　capitals　return　increased　by　the　revenue；　which　he　is　to　expect　from　them　in　the　following　year's　production。　But　though　he　distributes　and　afterwards　recovers　them；　by　means　of　the　circulating　medium；　which　serves　for　all　exchanges；　it　is　not　the　circulating　medium　which　forms　the　essential　requisite　in　his　operation。　The　same　cloth…maker；　labouring　each　year　on　an　equal　quantity；　sends　2400　pieces　of　cloth　to　the　market；　which　have　been　valued　at　60；000　l。　or　25　l。　a　piece。　He　exchanges　400　pieces　for　such　objects　of　consumption　as　are　needed　to　supply　the　wants；　the　enjoyments；　the　luxuries　of　himself　and　family。　He　exchanges　2000　pieces　for　the　raw　materials；　and　the　labour　which；　within　the　year；　are　to　re…produce　an　equal　quantity；　and　thus　next　year；　and　every　following　year；　he　will　have；　as　before；　2400　pieces　to　exchange　on　the　same　conditions。　His　capital；　equally　with　his　revenue；　is　actually　in　cloths；　not　in　money；　and　the　perpetual　result　of　his　commerce　is　to　exchange　cloth　against　cloth。　　　　　If　the　consumption　of　cloth　is　increased；　if　by　this　means　his　trade；　in　place　of　comprehending　2400　pieces　annually；　comprehends　3000；　more　labour　will；　no　doubt；　be　ordered　by　him；　and　executed　by　his　workmen；　but　if　the　money　alone　is　increased；　and　not　the　consumption　or　the　income　which　determines　it；　labour　and　production　cannot　increase。　Let　us　take　separately　each　one　of　his　customers；　as　he　calls　them。　There　is　not　one　of　them　who　does　nor　levy　a　greater　or　a　smaller　portion　of　his　income　in　kind；　but　all　may　arrange　matters　so　as　to　receive　the　whole　of　it　in　money。　They　are　not；　however；　more　rich　on　this　account；　they　will　not　be　at　more　expense；　they　will　not　buy　more　cloth　from　him；　and　this　trade　will　experience　no　kind　of　augmentation。　What　happens　to　individuals　may　equally　happen　to　nations。　The　revenue　of　a　country　or　the　sum　total　of　profits　arising　from　the　different　kinds　of　labour；　amounted；　we　shall　say；　last　year；　and　this　year；　to　fifty　millions；　but　last　year　the　country　levied　all　its　profit　in　goods；　in　merchandise　destined　for　its　consumption；　this　year；　from　some　mercantile　circumstance；　some　arrangement　of　exchanges；　it　has　levied　the　fourth；　the　third　part；　in　money　imported　through　the　frontiers。　It　is　neither　richer　nor　poorer；　for　this　alteration；　its　consumption　will；　as　formerly；　be　fifty　millions；　and　with　regard　to　the　money　imported；　apparently　its　industry　required　this　money；　otherwise　it　will　be　ag