°®°®Ð¡ËµÍø > ÆäËûµç×ÓÊé > political economy >

µÚ2ÕÂ

political economy-µÚ2ÕÂ

С˵£º political economy ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡



ield¡¡the¡¡people¡¡from¡¡the¡¡speculations¡¡of¡¡absolute¡¡power¡£¡¡They¡¡felt¡¡that£»¡¡to¡¡obtain¡¡a¡¡hearing¡¡from¡¡kings£»¡¡they¡¡must¡¡speak¡¡to¡¡them¡¡of¡¡royal¡¡interests£»¡¡not¡¡of¡¡justice¡¡or¡¡duty¡£¡¡They¡¡investigated¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡and¡¡causes¡¡of¡¡national¡¡wealth£»¡¡to¡¡show¡¡governments¡¡how¡¡it¡¡might¡¡be¡¡shared¡¡without¡¡being¡¡destroyed¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Too¡¡little¡¡liberty¡¡existed¡¡in¡¡Europe¡¡to¡¡allow¡¡those¡¡who¡¡first¡¡occupied¡¡themselves¡¡with¡¡political¡¡economy¡¡to¡¡present¡¡their¡¡speculations¡¡to¡¡the¡¡world£»¡¡and¡¡finances¡¡were¡¡enveloped¡¡in¡¡too¡¡profound¡¡a¡¡secrecy¡¡to¡¡admit¡¡of¡¡men£»¡¡not¡¡engaged¡¡in¡¡public¡¡business£»¡¡knowing¡¡facts¡¡enough¡¡to¡¡form¡¡the¡¡basis¡¡of¡¡general¡¡rules¡£¡¡Hence¡¡the¡¡study¡¡of¡¡political¡¡economy¡¡began¡¡with¡¡ministers£»¡¡when¡¡once¡¡it¡¡had¡¡fortunately¡¡happened¡¡that¡¡kings¡¡put¡¡men¡¡at¡¡the¡¡head¡¡of¡¡their¡¡finances£»¡¡who¡¡combined¡¡talents¡¡with¡¡justice¡¡and¡¡love¡¡of¡¡the¡¡public¡¡weal¡£¡¡Two¡¡great¡¡French¡¡ministers£»¡¡Sully¡¡under¡¡Henry¡¡IV£»¡¡and¡¡Colbert¡¡under¡¡Louis¡¡XIV£»¡¡were¡¡the¡¡first¡¡who¡¡threw¡¡any¡¡light¡¡on¡¡a¡¡subject¡¡till¡¡then¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡a¡¡secret¡¡of¡¡state£»¡¡in¡¡which¡¡mystery¡¡had¡¡engendered¡¡and¡¡concealed¡¡the¡¡greatest¡¡absurdities¡£¡¡Yet£»¡¡in¡¡spite¡¡of¡¡all¡¡their¡¡genius¡¡and¡¡authority£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡task¡¡beyond¡¡their¡¡power¡¡to¡¡introduce¡¡any¡¡thing¡¡like¡¡order£»¡¡precision£»¡¡or¡¡uniformity¡¡into¡¡this¡¡branch¡¡of¡¡government¡£¡¡Both¡¡of¡¡them£»¡¡however£»¡¡not¡¡only¡¡repressed¡¡the¡¡frightful¡¡spoliations¡¡of¡¡the¡¡revenue¡¡farmers£»¡¡and¡¡by¡¡their¡¡protection¡¡communicated¡¡some¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡security¡¡to¡¡private¡¡fortunes£»¡¡but¡¡likewise¡¡dimly¡¡perceived¡¡the¡¡true¡¡sources¡¡of¡¡national¡¡prosperity£»¡¡and¡¡busied¡¡themselves¡¡with¡¡efforts¡¡to¡¡make¡¡them¡¡flow¡¡more¡¡abundantly¡£¡¡Sully¡¡gave¡¡his¡¡chief¡¡protection¡¡to¡¡agriculture¡£¡¡He¡¡used¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡pasturage¡¡and¡¡husbandry¡¡wee¡¡the¡¡two¡¡beasts¡¡of¡¡the¡¡state¡£¡¡Colbert£»¡¡descended¡¡from¡¡a¡¡family¡¡engaged¡¡in¡¡the¡¡cloth¡¡trade£»¡¡studied¡¡above¡¡all¡¡to¡¡encourage¡¡manufactures¡¡and¡¡commerce¡£¡¡He¡¡furnished¡¡himself¡¡with¡¡the¡¡opinion¡¡of¡¡merchants£»¡¡and¡¡asked¡¡their¡¡advice¡¡on¡¡all¡¡emergencies¡£¡¡Both¡¡statesmen¡¡opened¡¡roads¡¡and¡¡canals¡¡to¡¡facilitate¡¡the¡¡exchange¡¡of¡¡commodities£º¡¡both¡¡protected¡¡the¡¡spirit¡¡of¡¡enterprise£»¡¡and¡¡honoured¡¡the¡¡industrious¡¡activity¡¡which¡¡diffused¡¡plenty¡¡over¡¡their¡¡country¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Colbert£»¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡of¡¡the¡¡two£»¡¡was¡¡greatly¡¡prior¡¡to¡¡any¡¡of¡¡the¡¡writers¡¡who¡¡have¡¡teated¡¡political¡¡economy¡¡as¡¡a¡¡science£»¡¡and¡¡reduced¡¡it¡¡to¡¡a¡¡body¡¡of¡¡doctrines¡£¡¡He¡¡had¡¡a¡¡system£»¡¡however£»¡¡in¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡national¡¡wealth£º¡¡he¡¡required¡¡one¡¡to¡¡give¡¡uniformity¡¡to¡¡his¡¡plans£»¡¡and¡¡delineate¡¡clearly¡¡before¡¡his¡¡view¡¡the¡¡object¡¡he¡¡wished¡¡to¡¡attain¡£¡¡His¡¡system¡¡was¡¡probably¡¡suggested¡¡by¡¡the¡¡merchants¡¡whom¡¡he¡¡consulted¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡now¡¡generally¡¡known¡¡by¡¡the¡¡epithet¡¡mercantile£»¡¡sometimes¡¡also¡¡by¡¡the¡¡name¡¡Colbertism¡£¡¡Not¡¡that¡¡Colbert¡¡was¡¡its¡¡author£»¡¡or¡¡unfolded¡¡it¡¡in¡¡any¡¡publication£»¡¡but¡¡because¡¡he¡¡was¡¡beyond¡¡comparison¡¡the¡¡most¡¡illustrious¡¡of¡¡its¡¡professors£»¡¡because£»¡¡notwithstanding¡¡the¡¡errors¡¡of¡¡his¡¡theory£»¡¡the¡¡applications¡¡he¡¡deduced¡¡from¡¡it¡¡were¡¡highly¡¡advantageous£»¡¡and¡¡because£»¡¡among¡¡the¡¡numerous¡¡writers¡¡who¡¡have¡¡maintained¡¡the¡¡same¡¡opinion£»¡¡there¡¡is¡¡not¡¡one¡¡who¡¡has¡¡shown¡¡enough¡¡of¡¡talent¡¡even¡¡to¡¡fix¡¡his¡¡name¡¡in¡¡the¡¡reader's¡¡memory¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡but¡¡just£»¡¡however£»¡¡to¡¡separate¡¡the¡¡mercantile¡¡system¡¡altogether¡¡from¡¡the¡¡name¡¡of¡¡Colbert¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡a¡¡system¡¡invented¡¡by¡¡trading¡¡subjects£»¡¡not¡¡by¡¡citizens£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡system¡¡adopted¡¡by¡¡all¡¡the¡¡ministers¡¡of¡¡absolute¡¡governments£»¡¡when¡¡they¡¡happened¡¡to¡¡take¡¡the¡¡trouble¡¡of¡¡thinking¡¡on¡¡finance£»¡¡and¡¡Colbert¡¡had¡¡no¡¡other¡¡share¡¡in¡¡the¡¡matter¡¡than¡¡that¡¡of¡¡having¡¡followed¡¡it¡¡without¡¡reforming¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡After¡¡long¡¡treating¡¡commerce¡¡with¡¡haughty¡¡contempt£»¡¡governments¡¡had¡¡at¡¡length¡¡discovered¡¡in¡¡it¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡abundant¡¡sources¡¡of¡¡national¡¡wealth¡£¡¡All¡¡the¡¡great¡¡fortunes¡¡in¡¡their¡¡states¡¡did¡¡not¡¡indeed¡¡belong¡¡exclusively¡¡to¡¡merchants£»¡¡but¡¡when£»¡¡overtaken¡¡by¡¡sudden¡¡necessity£»¡¡they¡¡wished¡¡to¡¡levy¡¡large¡¡sums¡¡at¡¡once£»¡¡merchants¡¡alone¡¡could¡¡supply¡¡them¡£¡¡Proprietors¡¡of¡¡land¡¡might¡¡possess¡¡immense¡¡revenues£»¡¡manufacturers¡¡might¡¡cause¡¡immense¡¡labours¡¡to¡¡be¡¡executed£»¡¡but¡¡neither¡¡of¡¡them¡¡could¡¡dispose¡¡of¡¡any¡¡more¡¡than¡¡their¡¡income¡¡or¡¡annual¡¡produce¡£¡¡In¡¡a¡¡case¡¡of¡¡need¡¡merchants¡¡alone¡¡offered¡¡their¡¡whole¡¡fortune¡¡to¡¡the¡¡government¡£¡¡As¡¡their¡¡capital¡¡was¡¡entirely¡¡represented¡¡by¡¡commodities¡¡already¡¡prepared¡¡for¡¡consumption£»¡¡by¡¡merchandise¡¡destined¡¡for¡¡the¡¡immediate¡¡use¡¡of¡¡the¡¡market¡¡to¡¡which¡¡it¡¡had¡¡been¡¡carried£»¡¡they¡¡could¡¡sell¡¡it¡¡at¡¡an¡¡hour's¡¡warning£»¡¡and¡¡realise¡¡the¡¡required¡¡sum¡¡with¡¡smaller¡¡loss¡¡than¡¡any¡¡other¡¡class¡¡of¡¡citizens¡£¡¡Merchants¡¡therefore¡¡found¡¡means¡¡to¡¡make¡¡themselves¡¡be¡¡listened¡¡to£»¡¡because¡¡they¡¡had¡¡in¡¡some¡¡sort¡¡the¡¡command¡¡of¡¡all¡¡the¡¡money¡¡in¡¡the¡¡state£»¡¡and¡¡were¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡nearly¡¡independent¡¡of¡¡authority¡¡¡­¡¡being¡¡able£»¡¡in¡¡general£»¡¡to¡¡hide¡¡from¡¡the¡¡attacks¡¡of¡¡despotism¡¡a¡¡property¡¡of¡¡unknown¡¡amount£»¡¡and¡¡transport¡¡it£»¡¡with¡¡their¡¡persons£»¡¡to¡¡a¡¡foreign¡¡country£»¡¡at¡¡a¡¡moment's¡¡notice¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Governments¡¡would¡¡gladly¡¡have¡¡increased¡¡the¡¡merchant's¡¡profit£»¡¡on¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡obtaining¡¡a¡¡share¡¡of¡¡it¡£¡¡Imagining¡¡that¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡was¡¡necessary¡¡than¡¡to¡¡second¡¡each¡¡other's¡¡views£»¡¡they¡¡offered¡¡him¡¡force¡¡to¡¡support¡¡industry¡£¡¡and¡¡since¡¡the¡¡advantage¡¡of¡¡the¡¡merchant¡¡consists¡¡in¡¡selling¡¡dear¡¡and¡¡buying¡¡cheap£»¡¡they¡¡thought¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡an¡¡effectual¡¡protection¡¡to¡¡commerce£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡means¡¡were¡¡afforded¡¡of¡¡selling¡¡still¡¡dearer¡¡and¡¡buying¡¡still¡¡cheaper¡£¡¡The¡¡merchants¡¡whom¡¡they¡¡consulted¡¡eagerly¡¡grasped¡¡at¡¡this¡¡proposal£»¡¡and¡¡thus¡¡was¡¡founded¡¡the¡¡mercantile¡¡system¡£¡¡Antonio¡¡de¡¡Leyva£»¡¡Fernando¡¡de¡¡Gonnzago£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Duke¡¡of¡¡Alva£»¡¡viceroys¡¡of¡¡Charles¡¡V¡¡and¡¡his¡¡descendants¡¡¡­¡¡the¡¡rapacious¡¡inventors¡¡of¡¡so¡¡many¡¡monopolies¡¡¡­¡¡had¡¡no¡¡other¡¡notion¡¡of¡¡political¡¡economy¡£¡¡But¡¡when¡¡it¡¡was¡¡attempted¡¡to¡¡reduce¡¡this¡¡methodical¡¡robbery¡¡of¡¡consumers¡¡into¡¡a¡¡system£»¡¡when¡¡deliberative¡¡assemblies¡¡were¡¡occupied¡¡with¡¡it£»¡¡when¡¡Colbert¡¡consulted¡¡corporations£»¡¡when¡¡the¡¡people¡¡at¡¡last¡¡began¡¡to¡¡perceive¡¡the¡¡true¡¡state¡¡of¡¡the¡¡case£»¡¡it¡¡became¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡find¡¡out¡¡a¡¡more¡¡honourable¡¡basis¡¡for¡¡such¡¡transactions£»¡¡it¡¡became¡¡necessary¡¡not¡¡only¡¡to¡¡study¡¡the¡¡advantage¡¡of¡¡financiers¡¡and¡¡merchants£»¡¡but¡¡also¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nation£º¡¡for¡¡the¡¡calculations¡¡of¡¡self¡­interest¡¡cannot¡¡show¡¡themselves¡¡in¡¡open¡¡day£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡first¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡publicity¡¡is¡¡to¡¡impose¡¡silence¡¡on¡¡base¡¡sentiments¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Under¡¡these¡¡circumstances¡¡the¡¡mercantile¡¡system¡¡was¡¡moulded¡¡into¡¡a¡¡plausible¡¡form£»¡¡and¡¡doubtless¡¡it¡¡must¡¡have¡¡been¡¡plausible£»¡¡since£»¡¡even¡¡till¡¡our¡¡own¡¡times£»¡¡it¡¡continued¡¡to¡¡seduce¡¡the¡¡greater¡¡part¡¡of¡¡practical¡¡men¡¡employed¡¡in¡¡trade¡¡and¡¡finance¡£¡¡Wealth£»¡¡said¡¡those¡¡earliest¡¡economists£»¡¡is¡¡money£º¡¡the¡¡two¡¡words¡¡were¡¡received¡¡into¡¡universal¡¡use¡¡as¡¡almost¡¡entirely¡¡synonymous£»¡¡no¡¡one¡¡dreamed¡¡of¡¡questioning¡¡the¡¡identity¡¡of¡¡money¡¡and¡¡wealth¡£¡¡Money£»¡¡they¡¡said£»¡¡disposes¡¡of¡¡men's¡¡labour¡¡and¡¡of¡¡all¡¡its¡¡fruits¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡money¡¡which¡¡produces¡¡those¡¡fruits£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡by¡¡means¡¡of¡¡money¡¡that¡¡industry¡¡continues¡¡in¡¡a¡¡nation£»¡¡to¡¡its¡¡influence¡¡each¡¡individual¡¡owes¡¡his¡¡subsistence¡¡and¡¡the¡¡continuation¡¡of¡¡his¡¡life¡£¡¡Money¡¡is¡¡especially¡¡necessary¡¡in¡¡the¡¡relation¡¡of¡¡one¡¡state¡¡to¡¡another¡£¡¡It¡¡supports¡¡war¡¡and¡¡forms¡¡the¡¡strength¡¡of¡¡armies¡£¡¡The¡¡state¡¡which¡¡has¡¡it£»¡¡rules¡¡over¡¡that¡¡which¡¡has¡¡it¡¡not¡£¡¡The¡¡whole¡¡science¡¡of¡¡political¡¡economy¡¡ought£»¡¡therefore£»¡¡to¡¡have¡¡for¡¡its¡¡object¡¡the¡¡increase¡¡of¡¡money¡¡in¡¡a¡¡nation¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡money¡¡possessed¡¡by¡¡a¡¡nation¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡augmented¡¡in¡¡quantity£»¡¡except¡¡by¡¡the¡¡working¡¡of¡¡mines£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡nation¡¡has¡¡any£»¡¡or¡¡by¡¡foreign¡¡trade£»¡¡if¡¡it¡¡has¡¡none¡£¡¡All¡¡the¡¡exchanges¡¡carried¡¡on¡¡within¡¡a¡¡country£»¡¡all¡¡the¡¡purchases¡¡and¡¡sales¡¡which¡¡take¡¡place¡¡among¡¡Englishmen£»¡¡for¡¡instance£»¡¡do¡¡not¡¡increase¡¡the¡¡specie¡¡contained¡¡within¡¡the¡¡shores¡¡of¡¡England¡¡by¡¡a¡¡single¡¡penny¡£¡¡Hence¡¡it¡¡is¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡And¡¡means¡¡of¡¡importing¡¡money¡¡from¡¡other¡¡countries£»¡¡and¡¡trade¡¡alone¡¡can¡¡do¡¡this¡¡by¡¡selling¡¡much¡¡to¡¡foreigners¡¡and¡¡buying¡¡little¡¡from¡¡them¡£¡¡For¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡way¡¡as¡¡each¡¡merchant¡¡in¡¡settling¡¡with¡¡his¡¡correspondent£»¡¡sees¡¡at¡¡the¡¡year's¡¡end¡¡whether¡¡he¡¡has¡¡sold¡¡more¡¡than¡¡he¡¡has¡¡bought£»¡¡and¡¡Ands¡¡himself¡¡accordingly¡¡creditor¡¡or¡¡debtor¡¡by¡¡a¡¡balance¡¡account¡¡which¡¡must¡¡be¡¡paid¡¡in¡¡money£»¡¡so¡¡likewise¡¡a¡¡nation£»¡¡by¡¡summing¡¡up¡¡all¡¡its¡¡purchases¡¡and¡¡all¡¡its¡¡sales¡¡with¡¡each¡¡nation£»¡¡or¡¡with¡¡all¡¡together£»¡¡would¡¡find¡¡itself¡¡every¡¡year¡¡creditor¡¡or¡¡debtor¡¡by¡¡a¡¡commercial¡¡balance¡¡which¡¡must¡¡be¡¡paid¡¡in¡¡money¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡country¡¡pay¡¡this¡¡balance£»¡¡it¡¡will¡¡constantly¡¡grow¡¡poorer£»¡¡if¡¡it¡¡receive¡¡the¡¡balance£»¡¡it¡¡will¡¡constantly¡¡grow¡¡richer¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡For¡¡a¡¡century£»¡¡the¡¡mercantile¡¡system¡¡was¡¡universally¡¡adopted¡¡by¡¡cabinets£»¡¡universally¡¡favoured¡¡by¡¡traders¡¡and¡¡chambers¡¡of¡¡commerce£»¡¡universally¡¡expounded¡¡by¡¡writers£»¡¡as¡¡if¡¡it¡¡had¡¡been¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡the¡¡most¡¡unexceptionable¡¡demonstration£»¡¡no¡¡one¡¡deeming¡¡it¡¡worth¡¡while¡¡to¡¡establish¡¡it¡¡by¡¡new¡¡proofs£»¡¡when£»¡¡after¡¡the¡¡middle¡¡of¡¡the¡¡eighteenth¡¡century£»¡¡Quesnay¡¡opposed¡¡to¡¡it¡¡his¡¡Tableau¡¡Economique£»¡¡afterwards¡¡expounded¡¡by¡¡Mirabeau¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Abbe¡¡de¡¡Riviere£»¡¡enlarged¡¡by¡¡Dupont¡¡de¡¡Nemours£»¡¡and¡¡adopted¡¡by¡¡a¡¡numerous¡¡sect¡¡which¡¡arose¡¡in¡¡France£»¡¡under¡¡the¡¡name¡¡of¡¡Economists¡£¡¡In¡¡Italy¡¡too¡¡this¡¡sect¡¡gained¡¡some¡¡distinguished¡¡partisans¡£¡¡Its¡¡followers¡¡have¡¡written¡¡more¡¡about¡¡the¡¡science¡¡than¡¡those¡¡of¡¡any¡¡other¡¡sect£»¡¡yet¡¡they¡¡have¡¡admitted¡¡Quesnay's¡¡principles¡¡with¡¡such¡¡blind¡¡confidence£»¡¡and¡¡maintained¡¡them¡¡with¡¡such¡¡implicit¡¡fidelity£»¡¡that¡¡one¡¡is¡¡at¡¡a¡¡loss¡¡to¡¡discover¡¡any¡¡difference¡¡of¡¡principle£»¡¡or¡¡any¡¡progress¡¡of¡¡ideas¡¡in¡¡their¡¡several¡¡productions¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Thus¡¡Quesnay¡¡founded¡¡a¡¡second¡¡system¡¡in¡¡political¡¡economy£»¡¡still¡¡named¡¡the¡¡territorial¡¡system£»¡¡or¡¡more¡¡precisely¡¡the¡¡system¡¡of¡¡the¡¡economists¡£¡¡He¡¡begins¡¡by¡¡asserting¡¡that¡¡gold¡¡and¡¡silver£»¡¡the¡¡signs¡¡of¡¡wealth£»¡¡the¡¡means¡¡of¡¡exchange£»¡¡the¡¡price¡¡of¡¡all¡¡commodities£»¡¡do¡¡not¡¡themselves¡¡constitute¡¡the¡¡wealth¡¡of¡¡states£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡no¡¡judgment¡¡can¡¡be¡¡formed¡¡concerning¡¡the¡¡prosperity¡¡of¡¡a¡¡nation£»¡¡from¡¡the¡¡abundance¡¡of¡¡its¡¡precious¡¡metals¡£¡¡He¡¡next¡¡proceeds¡¡to¡¡survey¡¡the¡¡different¡¡classes¡¡of¡¡men£»¡¡all¡¡of¡¡whom£»¡¡occupied¡¡in¡¡gaining¡¡money£»¡¡and¡¡causing¡¡wealth¡¡to¡¡circulate£»¡¡even¡¡when¡¡acquiring¡¡it¡¡for¡¡themselves£»¡¡are¡¡not£»¡¡according¡¡to¡¡him£»¡¡occupied¡¡with¡¡any¡¡thing¡¡besides¡¡exchange¡£¡¡He¡¡endeavours¡¡to¡¡distinguish¡¡the¡¡classes¡¡possessed¡¡of¡¡a¡¡creative¡¡power£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡amongst¡¡them¡¡that¡¡wealth¡¡must¡¡originate£»¡¡all¡¡the¡¡transactions¡¡of¡¡commerce¡¡appearing¡¡to¡¡be¡¡nothing¡¡else¡¡but¡¡the¡¡transmission¡¡of¡¡that¡¡wealth¡¡from¡¡hand¡¡to¡¡hand¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡The¡¡merchant¡¡who¡¡carries¡¡the¡¡productions¡¡of¡¡both¡¡hemispheres¡¡from¡¡one¡¡continent¡¡to¡¡the¡¡other£»¡¡and¡¡on¡¡returning¡¡to¡¡the¡¡ports¡¡of¡¡his¡¡own¡¡country£»¡¡obtains£»¡¡at¡¡the¡¡sale¡¡of¡¡his¡¡cargo£»¡¡a¡¡sum¡¡double¡¡of¡¡that¡¡with¡¡which¡¡he¡¡began¡¡his¡¡voyage£»¡¡does¡¡not£»¡¡after¡¡all£»¡¡appear£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡eyes¡¡of¡¡Quesnay£»¡¡to¡¡have¡¡performed¡¡any¡¡thing¡¡but¡¡an¡¡exchange¡£¡¡If£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡colonies£»¡¡he¡¡has¡¡sold¡¡the¡¡manufactures¡¡of¡¡Europe¡¡at¡¡a¡¡higher¡¡price¡¡than¡¡they¡¡cost¡¡him£»¡¡the¡¡reason¡¡is£»¡¡they¡¡were¡¡in¡¡fact¡¡worth¡¡more¡£¡¡Together¡¡with¡¡their¡¡prime¡¡cost£»¡¡he¡¡must¡¡also¡¡be¡¡reimbursed¡¡for¡¡the¡¡value¡¡of¡¡his¡¡time£»¡¡his¡¡cares£»¡¡his¡¡subsistence£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡of¡¡his¡¡sailors¡¡and¡¡agents¡¡during¡¡the¡¡voyage¡£¡¡He¡¡has¡¡a¡¡like¡¡reimbursement¡¡to¡¡claim¡¡on¡¡the¡¡cotton¡¡or¡¡sugar¡¡he¡¡brings¡¡back¡¡to¡¡Europe¡£¡¡If£»¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡his¡¡voyage£»¡¡any¡¡profit¡¡remains£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡the¡¡fruit¡¡of¡¡his¡¡economy¡¡and¡¡good¡¡management¡£¡¡The¡¡wages¡¡allowed¡¡him¡¡by¡¡consumers£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡trouble¡¡he¡¡has¡¡undergone£»¡¡are¡¡greater¡¡than¡¡the¡¡sum¡¡he¡¡had¡¡expended¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡wages£»¡¡however£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡entirely¡¡expended¡¡by¡¡him¡¡who¡¡earns¡¡them£»¡¡and¡¡had¡¡this¡¡merchant¡¡done¡¡so£»¡¡he¡¡would¡¡have¡¡added¡¡nothing¡¡to¡¡the¡¡national¡¡wealth£»¡¡by¡¡the¡¡labour¡¡of¡¡his¡¡whole¡¡life£»¡¡because¡¡the¡¡produce¡¡which¡¡he¡¡brings¡¡back¡¡does¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡than¡¡exactly¡¡replace¡¡the¡¡valuE¡¡of¡¡the¡¡produce¡¡given¡¡for¡¡it£»¡¡added¡¡to¡¡his¡¡own¡¡wages£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡wages¡¡of¡¡all¡¡that¡¡were¡¡engaged¡¡with¡¡him¡¡in¡¡the¡¡b

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨2£© ²È£¨2£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ