political economy-第21章

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sking　money。　Some　have　established　capitations；　which；　weighing　equally　on　the　poor　and　the　rich；　force　the　man　to　pay　who　has　nothing；　for　whom　society　does　nothing；　equally　with　him　who　has　too　much；　for　whom　society　lays　out　enormous　expenses。　Others　have　attacked　with　considerable　imposts；　inheritances；　sales；　and　all　exchange　of　property；　though；　in　thus　encroaching　on　capital；　not　on　revenue；　they　diminish　the　productive　cause　of　wealth；　nearly　as　if　tithes　were　levied　on　the　seed；　instead　of　being　levied　on　the　crop。　Others　have　established　imposts　on　loans；　by　pledge　and　judicial　acts；　on　stamps；　and　a　train　of　accidents　which　ought　to　be　taken　as　Symptoms　of　poverty；　not　of　riches。　Others；　in　fine；　by　establishing　lotteries；　have　profited　by　encouraging　a　ruinous　vice。　　　　　This　review　of　the　different　kinds　of　taxation　shows　clearly；　that　one　of　the　most　essential　qualities　which　a　nation　can　ask　in　its　government　is　economy。　States；　in　the　vigour　lent　them　by　freedom；　in　the　full　enjoyment　of　all　their　advantages；　give　way　to　all　the　dreams　of　ambition；　they　listen　to　all　the　suggestions　of　pride；　of　jealousy；　or　of　vengeance；　under　the　pretext　of　being　on　their　guard　against　distant　or　imaginary　dangers；　they　rush　headlong；　with　light　hearts；　into　ruinous　wars；　and　persist　in　them　with　obstinacy；　though　the　voice　of　humanity　calls　for　peace　in　vain；　the　superiority　of　their　nation　does　not　yet　appear　sufficiently　established；　their　enemy　is　not　yet　sufficiently　humbled；　the　work　which　they　thought　accomplished　has　been　overturned；　it　must　be　reestablished　at　any　price。　Present　resources；　however；　are　exhausted；　and　recourse　is　had　to　borrowing：　credit　is　still　entire；　the　national　capitals　are　drained　away　from　commerce；　and　placed；　one　after　another；　at　the　disposal　of　a　minister；　who　dissipates　them；　and　replaces　them　by　assignments　on　the　future；　and　the　passion　which　blinded　men　for　a　few　months；　condemns　their　posterity　to　suffering　for　ages。　　　　　Perhaps　no　invention　was　ever　more　fatal　to　men　than　that　of　public　loans：　none　is　yet　enveloped　with　more　illusions。　The　passions　excited　by　politics　are　so　violent；　the　questions　to　be　decided　by　negotiations　or　by　arms　so　important；　all　sacrifices　become　so　natural；　when　the　prosperity；　the　existence；　the　honour　of　all　are　at　stake；　that　governments　and　the　people；　before　yielding；　are　to　exhaust　every　resource　to　the　very　uttermost。　They　will　send　out　the　last　man　to　battle；　they　will　expend　their　last　shilling；　if　they　can　possibly　dispose　of　either；　and　they　will　do　this　not　alone　for　the　safety　of　the　people；　but　for　any　war；　any　quarrel　in　which　they　happen　to　engage；　because　there　is　no　one　in　which　their　offended　pride　may　not　be　confounded　with　honour；　in　which　they　cannot　honestly　say　what　is　true　only　in　extreme　cases；　that　a　nation　had　better　cease　to　exist　than　exist　dishonoured。　　　　　If　the　possibility　of　making　such　preternatural　exertions　could　be　furnished　to　nations；　and　reserved　at　the　same　time　for　an　extraordinary　necessity；　no　doubt　a　great　service　would　be　done　to　human　society；　which　is　shaken　to　its　foundation　every　time　that　one　of　its　members　is　overthrown。　But　each　mean　of　defence　becomes　in　its　turn　a　mean　of　attack。　The　invention　of　artillery；　happy　for　society　if　it　could　have　been　employed　only　in　the　defence　of　towns；　has　served　to　overthrow　them：　the　invention　of　standing　armies　has　opposed　discipline　to　discipline；　and　talent　to　talent；　the　invention　of　conscriptions　has　opposed　all　the　youth　of　one　nation　to　all　the　youth　of　another；　the　invention　of　landsthurms　and　levees　en　masse；　has　made　even　women　and　old　men　descend　to　the　field　of　battle　to　assist　regular　troops；　the　invention　of　loans　has　attacked　and　defended　the　present　generation；　with　all　the　hope　and　all　the　labour　of　posterity。　The　strength　of　nations；　though　becoming　still　more　formidable；　has　continued　still　in　same　proportion。　The　state；　in　danger；　has　not　found　deliverance　more　easily。　but　humanity　herself　has　been　sacrificed；　and；　amid　those　gigantic　combats；　it　is　she　that　must　perish。　　　　　As；　after　those　destructive　expenses　rendered　possible　by　loans；　there　remains　an　apparent　wealth；　which　has　been　named　the　public　funds；　and　which　figures　as　an　immense　capital；　the　different　portions　of　which　constitute　the　fortunes　of　opulent　individuals；　some　have　believed；　or　affected　to　believe；　that　this　dissipation　of　national　capital　was　not　so　great　an　evil；　but　rather　a　circulation；　which　caused　wealth　to　spring　up　again　under　another　shape；　and　that　mysterious　advantages　existed　for　great　states　in　this　immaterial　opulence；　which　was　seen　to　pass　from　hand　to　hand　on　the　market　of　the　public　stocks。　　　　　No　very　powerful　logic　was　needed；　to　persuade　ministers　of　the　advantages　arising　from　dissipation；　stock…jobbers；　of　the　national　profit　attached　to　their　commerce；　state　creditors；　of　the　importance　of　their　rank　in　society；　capitalists；　eager　to　lend；　of　the　service　they　did　to　the　public；　by　taking　from　it　an　interest　superior　to　that　of　trade。　Thus　all　appeared　amply　satisfied　with　regard　to　the　unintelligible　doctrine　by　which　it　was　pretended　to　demonstrate　the　advantage　of　public　funds。　　　　　In　place　of　following　this　subtle　reasoning；　we　shall　endeavour　to　show　that　stocks　are　nothing　else　but　the　imaginary　capital；　which　represents　that　portion　of　the　annual　revenue　set　apart　for　paying　the　debt。　An　equivalent　capital　has　been　dissipated；　it　is　this　which　gives　name　to　the　loan；　but　it　is　not　this　which　stocks　represent；　for　this　does　not　any　where　exist。　New　wealth；　however；　must　spring　from　labour　and　industry。　A　yearly　portion　of　this　wealth　is　assigned　beforehand　to　those　who　have　lent　the　wealth　already　destroyed；　the　loan　will　abstract　this　portion　from　its　producer；　to　bestow　it　on　the　state　creditor；　according　to　the　proportion　between　capital　and　interest　usual　in　the　country：　and　an　imaginary　capital　is　conceived　to　exist；　equivalent　to　what　would　yield　the　annual　revenue　which　the　creditors　are　to　receive。　　　　　As；　in　lending　to　a　merchant　or　a　landed　proprietor；　we　acquire　a　right　to　part　of　the　revenue　which　arises　from　the　merchant's　trade；　or　from　the　proprietor's　land；　but　diminish　their　revenue　by　the　precise　sum　which　increases　our　own；　so　in　lending　to　government　we　acquire　a　right　to　that　part　of　the　merchant's　or　proprietor's　revenue；　which　government　will　seize　by　taxation　to　pay　us。　We　are　enriched　only　as　contributors　are　impoverished。　Private　and　public　credit　are　a　part　of　individual；　but　not　of　national　wealth；　for　nothing　is　wealth　but　what　gives　a　revenue；　and　credit　gives　none　to　the　nation。　If　all　public　and　private　debts　were　abolished　in　a　day；　there　would　be　a　frightful　overturning　of　property。　one　family　would　be　ruined　for　the　profit　of　another；　but　the　nation　would　neither　be　richer　nor　poorer；　and　the　one　party　would　have　gained　what　the　other　had　lost。　This　has　not；　however；　in　any　case；　been　the　result　of　public　bankruptcies；　because　governments；　whilst　suppressing　their　debts；　have　maintained　the　taxation　which　belonged　to　their　creditors；　or　rather　they　have　broken　their　faith　to　the　latter；　and　have　continued　notwithstanding　to　encroach　on　the　property　of　contributors。　　　　　A　government　which　borrows；　after　leaving　dissipated　its　capital；　makes　posterity　perpetually　debtor　in　the　clearest　part　of　the　profit　arising　from　its　work。　An　overwhelming　burden　is　cast　upon　it；　to　bow　down；　one　generation　after　another。　Public　calamities　may　occur；　trade　may　take　a　new　direction；　rivals　may　supplant　us。　The　reproduction　which　is　sold　beforehand　may　never　reappear；　yet　not　withstanding　we　are　loaded　with　a　debt　above　our　strength；　with　a　debt　of　hypothecating　our　future　labour；　which　we　shall　not　perhaps　be　able　to　accomplish。　　　　　The　necessity　of　paying　this　debt　begets　oppressive　imposts　of　one　kind　or　another；　all　become　equally　fatal　when　too　much　multiplied。　They　overwhelm　industry；　and　destroy　that　reproduction　which　is　already　sold　beforehand。　The　more　that　it　has　paid　already；　the　less　capable　does　the　nation　become　of　paying　farther。　One　part　of　the　revenue　was　to　spring　from　agriculture　…　but　taxation　has　ruined　agriculture；　another　proceeded　from　manufactures；　but　taxation　has　closed　up　those　establishments；　another　yet　from　trade；　but　taxation　has　banished　trade。　The　suffering　continues　to　increase；　all　the　resources　to　diminish。　The　moment　arrives　at　last；　when　a　frightful　bankruptcy　becomes　inevitable。　And　doubts　are　entertained　whether　it　should　not　even　be　hastened；　that　the　salvation　of　the　state　may　yet　be　attempted。　There　remains　no　chance　to　shield　the　whole　subjects　of　the　state　from　ruin；　but　if　the　creditors　are　allowed　to　perish　first；　perhaps　the　debtors　will　escape；　if　the　debtors　perish　from　penury；　with　them　will　be　extinguished　the　last　hope　of　the　creditors；　who　must　soon　perish　in　their　turn。


Chapter　7

Of　Population

　　　　We　have　defined　political　economy；　as　being　the　investigation　of　the　means；　by　which　the　greatest　number　of　men　in　a　given　state　may　participate　in　the　highest　degree　of　physical　happiness；　so　far　as　it　depends　on　government。　Two　elements；　indeed；　must　always　be　received　in　connexion　by　the　legislature；　the　increase　of　happiness　in　intensity；　and　the　diffusion　of　it　among　all　classes　of　subjects。　It　is　thus　that　political　economy；　on　a　great　scale；　becomes　the　theory　of　beneficence；　and　that　every　thing　which　does　not　in　the　long　run　concern　the　happiness　of　men　belongs　not　to　this　science。　　　　　The　human　race　originating　in　a　single　family；　has　multiplied；　and　spread　itself　by　degrees　over　the　globe；　and　much　time　was　of　course　required；　before　it　could　be　adjusted　to　the　means　of　subsistence；　which　different　parts　of　this　globe　are　capable　of　supplying。　We　see　this　work　of　nature　repeated　in　new　counties；　or　in　a　colony　established　in　a　desert　region。　A　state　which　passes　from　barbarism　to　a　higher　stage　of　civilization；　cannot　all　on　a　sudden　become　covered　with　as　many　inhabitants　as　it　may　comfortably　support：　as　the　earth　has　been　wasted　several　times；　as　the　greater　part　of　its　provinces　has　been　by　turns　plunged　into　a　state　of　desolation；　to　arise　from　it　slowly　afterwards；　we　have　often　had　the　opportunity　of　witnessing　this　spectacle　of　a　growing　population。　We　are　accustomed　to　consider　it　as　the　mark　of　prosperity　and　good　government；　and　hence　our　law　and　constitution　all　tend　to　favour　this　increase；　though　to　increase　the　symptoms　of　prosperity　is　very　different　from　increasing　prosperity　itself。　　　　　Nature　has　attended　to　the　multiplication　of　races　with　a　kind　of　profusion。　Although　that　of　man　is　among　the　slowest　in　its　progress；　it　may　increase；　when　all　circumstances　are　favourable；　far　more　quickly　than　any　of　our　observations　indicate。　When　every　man　has　a　great　interest　in　bringing　up　a　family；　and　has　the　means　of　doing　so；　when　all　marry；　and　all　as　young　as　nature　permits；　when　they　continue　to　have　children　till　the　approaches　of　old　age；　their　posterity　increases　so　as　very　quickly　to　occupy　all　the　allotted　space。　In　several　counties；　in　consequence　of　the　social　organization；　not　above　a　fourth　part　of　the　individuals　marry；　the　rest　grow　old　in　celibacy。　Yet