political economy-第24章

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　virtue　of　innocent　and　defenceless　beings　are　thus　sacrificed　beforehand；　to　satisfy　the　passions　of　a　day。　The　ardour　of　casuists　in　preaching　up　marriage　to　correct　a　fault；　the　imprudence　with　which　they　recommend　husbands　to　shut　their　eyes　upon　the　future；　to　entrust　the　fate　of　their　children　to　providence；　the　ignorance　of　social　order；　which　has　induced　them　to　erase　chastity　from　the　number　of　virtues　proper　in　marriage；　are　causes　which　have　been　incessantly　active　in　destroying　the　proportion　which　naturally　would　have　established　itself　between　the　population　and　its　means　of　existing。　　　　　The　Catholic　faith　has　sometimes　gained　credit　for　its　religious　vows；　which　by　forbidding　marriage　to　a　certain　number　of　individuals；　seemed　to　offer　some　opposition　to　an　unlimited　multiplication　of　the　human　species。　But　those　who　consider　it　thus；　certainly　do　not　understand　another　very　important　part　of　the　legislation　of　casuists；　with　regard　to　all　that　they　have　named　the　duties　of　husbands。　Considering　marriage　as　solely　destined　for　multiplication；　they　have　made　a　sin　of　the　very　virtues　which　they　enforce　on　single　persons。　This　morality　is　enforced　by　every　confessor　on　every　father　and　mother　of　a　family。　The　effects　of　it　are　powerfully　felt　in　the　social　organization　of　Catholic　countries。　They　are　met　with　even　in　reformed　churches。　　　　　When　fatal　prejudices　are　not　honoured；　when　a　system　of　morality　contrary　to　our　true　duties　towards　others；　and　above　all　towards　those　indebted　to　us　for　life；　is　not　taught　in　the　name　of　the　most　sacred　authority；　no　wise　man　will　marry　till　he　is　in　a　condition　that　affords　him　sure　means　of　living；　no　father　of　a　family　will　have　more　children　than　he　can　conveniently　maintain。　The　latter　expects　that　his　children　will　be　satisfied　with　the　lot　in　which　he　has　lived；　hence　he　will　wish　the　rising　generation　exactly　to　represent　that　which　is　departing；　he　will　wish　that　a　son　and　a　daughter　arrived　at　the　age　of　marriage；　should　fill　the　place　of　his　father　and　his　mother；　that　his　children's　children　should　fill　his　place　and　his　wife's；　in　their　turn；　his　daughter　will　find　in　another　house　exactly　the　lot　which　he　will　give　to　the　daughter　of　another　house　in　his　own；　and　the　income　which　satisfied　the　fathers　will　satisfy　the　children。　　　　　When　once　this　family　is　formed；　justice　and　humanity　require　that　they　submit　to　the　same　constraints　which　single　people　undergo。　On　considering　how　small　is　the　number　of　natural　children　in　every　country；　it　ought　to　be　admitted　that　this　constraint　is　sufficiently　effectual。　In　a　country　where　population　cannot　increase；　where　new　places　do　not　exist　for　new　establishments；　the　father　who　has　eight　children　should　reckon　either　that　six　of　his　children　will　die　young；　or　that　three　contemporary　males　and　their　contemporary　females；　or　in　the　following　generation　three　of　his　sons　and　three　of　his　daughters　will　not　marry　on　his　account。　There　is　no　less　injustice　in　the　second　calculation　than　cruelty　in　the　first。　If　marriage　is　sacred；　if　it　is　one　great　means　of　attaching　men　to　virtue；　and　recompensing　the　chagrins　of　declining　years；　by　the　growing　hopes　of　allowing　an　honourable　old　age　to　succeed　an　active　youth；　it　is　not　because　this　institution　renders　lawful　the　pleasures　of　sense；　but　because　it　imposes　new　duties　on　the　father　of　a　family；　and　returns　him　the　sweetest　recompense　in　the　ties　of　husband　and　father。　Religious　morality　ought　therefore　to　teach　men；　that　marriage　is　made　for　all　citizens　equally；　that　it　is　the　object　towards　which　they　should　all　direct　their　efforts；　but　that　this　object　has　not　been　attained　except　so　far　as　they　are　able　to　fulfil　their　duties　towards　the　beings　whom　they　call　into　existence：　and　after　obtaining　the　happiness　of　being　fathers；　after　renewing　their　families；　and　giving　this　stay　and　hope　to　their　declining　years；　they　are　no　less　obliged　to　live　chastely　with　their　wives；　than　single　persons　with　such　as　do　not　belong　to　them。　　　　　Self…interest　powerfully　warns　men　against　this　indefinite　multiplication　of　their　families；　to　which　they　have　been　invited　by　so　fatal　a　religious　error；　and　no　one　ought　to　be　disquieted　if　this　order　is　observed　remissly。　In　general　at　least　three　births　are　required　to　give　two　such　individuals　as　arrive　at　the　age　of　marriage；　and　the　niches　of　population　are　not　so　exactly　formed；　that　they　cannot　by　turns　admit　a　little　more　and　a　little　less。　Only　government　ought　to　awaken　the　prudence　of　citizens　deficient　in　it；　and　never　to　deceive　them　by　hopes　of　an　independent　lot；　when　this　illusory　establishment　shall　leave　them　exposed　to　misery；　suffering；　and　death。　　　　　When　peasants　are　proprietors；　the　agricultural　population　stops　of　itself；　when　it　has　brought　about　a　division　of　the　land；　such　that　each　family　is　invited　to　labour；　and　may　live　in　comfortable　circumstances。　This　is　the　case　in　almost　all　the　Swiss　cantons；　which　follow　nothing　but　agriculture。　When　two　or　more　sons　are　found　in　one　family；　the　younger　do　not　marry　till　they　can　find　wives　who　bring　them　some　property。　Till　then；　they　work　day…labour　and　live　by　means　of　it。　But　among　peasant…cultivators；　the　trade　of　day…labour　does　not　afford　a　rank；　and　the　workman　who　has　nothing　but　his　limbs；　can　rarely　find　a　father　imprudent　enough　to　give　him　his　daughter。　　　　　When　the　land；　instead　of　being　cultivated　by　its　proprietors；　is　cultivated　by　farmers；　metayers；　day…labourers；　the　condition　of　the　latter　classes　becomes　more　precarious；　and　their　multiplication　is　not　so　necessarily　adjusted　to　the　demand　for　their　labour。　They　are　far　worse　informed　than　the　peasant…proprietor；　and　yet　they　are　called　to　perform　a　much　more　complicated　calculation。　Living　under　the　risk　of　being　dismissed　at　a　day'　s　notice　from　the　land　they　till；　it　is　less　a　question　with　them　what　this　land　will　give；　than　what　is　their　chance　of　being　employed　elsewhere。　They　calculate　probabilities　in　place　of　certainties；　and　commit　themselves　to　fortune　with　regard　to　what　they　cannot　investigate。　They　depend　on　being　happy；　they　marry　much　younger；　they　bring　into　the　world　many　more　children；　precisely　because　they　know　less　distinctly　how　those　children　are　to　be　established。　　　　　Thus　metayers；　day…labourers。　all　peasants　depending　on　a　master；　being　more　imperfectly　able　to　judge　of　their　situation　by　themselves；　ought　to　be　guided　and　protected　by　government。　Landed　proprietors　wield　all　the　force　of　monopoly　against　them；　whilst　day…labourers；　acting　in　competition　with　each　other；　are　finally　reduced　to　work　for　the　most　wretched　subsistence。　Those　measures　are　wise；　therefore；　which　have　been　adopted　by　legislators　to　fix　the　minimum　share　that　should　fall　to　each　peasant。　It　would；　in　general；　be　a　beneficent　law　which　should　permit　no　division　of　a　metairie　below　a　certain　limit；　no　reduction　below　a　half　on　the　metayer's　part。　It　is　a　beneficent　law　which　has　fixed　the　peasant's　lot　in　Austria；　a　law　which　should　invariably　fix　the　Russian　peasant's　capitation　to　his　landlord；　would　be　equivalent　to　an　emancipation　from　serfage；　and　free　from　all　the　convulsions　of　such　a　step。　The　Russian　nation　could　not；　perhaps；　receive　a　greater　benefit　from　its　government。　The　statute　of　Elizabeth；　in　fine；　was　wise　in　prohibiting　a　cottage　from　being　built　without　at　least　four　acres　of　land　being　allotted　to　it。　Had　this　law　been　executed　in　England　and　Ireland；　no　marriage　could　have　happened　among　day…labourers　without　a　cottage　to　shelter　the　family；　no　cottager　would　have　been　reduced　to　the　last　degree　of　penury。　　　　　The　industrious　population　which　inhabit　towns　have　still　fewer　data　than　those　of　the　country；　for　calculating　the　lot　of　the　succeeding　generation。　The　workman　knows　only　that　he　has　lived　by　his　labour；　he　naturally　believes　that　his　children　will　do　so　likewise。　How　can　he　judge　of　the　extent　of　the　market；　or　the　general　demand　for　labour　in　his　country；　whilst　the　master　who　employs　him　is　incessantly　mistaken　on　these　points？　Accordingly；　this　class；　more　dependent　than　any　other　on　chances　of　every　kind　for　its　subsistence；　is　exactly　the　class　which　calculates　those　chances　least　in　the　formation　of　a　family。　They　are　the　people　who　marry　soonest；　produce　most　children；　and　consequently　lose　most：　but　they　do　not　lose　their　children；　till　after　being　themselves　exposed　to　a　competition　which　deprives　them　successively　of　all　the　sweets　of　life。　　　　　At　the　time　when　all　towns　were　distributed　into　bodies　of　tradesmen；　when　a　calling　could　not　be　exercised　till　the　applicant　had　been　united　to　a　corporation；　a　workman　never　married　till　after　he　had　been　passed　master。　A　reception　into　the　trade　gave　him　the　certainty　of　being　able　to　maintain　his　family；　an　excessive　competition　did　not　expose　the　great　mass　of　the　population　to　the　danger　of　dying　from　hunger。　Thus；　all　the　institutions　created　in　the　republics　of　the　middle　ages；　and　reproduced　in　Queen　Elizabeth's　statute　of　apprenticeship；　though　keenly　attacked　by　Adam　Smith；　for　establishing　a　monopoly　contrary　to　the　consumer's　interest；　may　be　defended；　not　in　regard　to　the　increase　of　riches；　but　as　forming　a　necessary　obstacle　to　the　immoderate　increase　of　population。　　　　　Yet　because　the　system　we　follow　has　made　us　experience　a　calamity；　we　ought　not　to　imagine　that　no　escape　is　to　be　found；　except　by　rushing　into　the　opposite　extreme。　It　is　not　by　the　suppression　of　corporations　alone；　that　we　have　disproportionately　increased　the　manufacturing　population。　It　is　much　more　by　the　inordinate　encouragement　which　all　governments；　at　the　same　time；　have　given　to　production　without　attending　to　consumption。　We　have　already　pointed　out　the　results　of　this　imprudent　struggle；　in　regard　to　the　increase　of　wealth。　They　have　been　still　more　disastrous　in　producing　and　supporting　with　deceitful　hopes　a　population；　which　has　afterwards　been　abandoned　to　all　the　horrors　of　want。　　　　　A　state　ought；　doubtless；　to　receive　with　gratitude　whatever　new　industry　the　wants　of　consumers　may　develop　but　it　also　ought　to　allow　the　industry　which　is　quitting　it　to　depart；　without　any　effort　to　the　contrary。　When　the　profits　of　a　manufacture　diminish；　new　workmen　do　not　engage　in　it；　former　workmen　withdraw；　and　after　some　years　of　suffering；　too　long　and　too　cruel；　by　any　mode　of　treatment；　the　level　is　again　established。　But　if　the　favours　of　government　keep　up　the　staggering　manufacture；　if；　trying　to　save　it；　government　offers　bounties　for　the　discovery　of　any　machine　which　shall　spare　manual　labour；　it　will　prolong　suffering；　and　save　the　manufacturer　only　at　the　expense　of　those　whom　that　manufacturer　should　support。　　　　　The　guardian　population　presents　the　same　species　of　suffering　in　another　rank　of　society。　War　multiplies　the　commissions　of　officers　in　the　army　and　navy；　the　complicacy　of　administration　multiplies　the　places　of　judges　and　civil　agents　of　all　kinds。　Religious　zeal　multiplies　the　places　for　pastors。　All　of　them　live　on　pensions　with　a　certain　degree　of　opulence；　none　of　them　knows；　or　is　able　to　insure　the　fund　which　affords　him　subsistence。　They　reckon　on　ushering　their　children　into　the　same　career　with　themselves；　t