political economy-第25章
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ords him subsistence。 They reckon on ushering their children into the same career with themselves； they bring them up； multiply their families in proportion to their actual opulence； and blindly repose on the future。 Their pension； however； finishes with their life； and at death they leave their children in a state of indigence； the suffering of which is farther aggravated by the possession of a liberal education。 The laws which obstruct the marriage of officers； judges； clergymen； and generally of all such as live on pensions； how hard soever those law may appear at their first establishment； are justifiable； because they save from poverty the class to which its torments would be most piercing。 But an inordinate increase of population is not the only cause of this national suffering。 The demand for labour may decrease； and the population continue stationary。 Consumption may be arrested； revenues dissipated； capital destroyed； and the number of hands formerly occupied may no longer be able to find a sufficient employment。 The population immediately follow the revolution of the capitals destined to support it。 As day…labourers are more eager to receive even the smallest wage； than merchants to employ their money； the former are laid under conditions more and more hard； as the demand on the capital diminishes； and they conclude by contenting themselves with so miserable a remuneration； as is scarcely sufficient to maintain them alive。 No enjoyment is any longer attached to the existence of this unhappy class； hunger and suffering stifle in them all the moral affections。 When every hour is a struggle for life； all passions are concentrated in selfishness； each forgets the pain of others in what himself suffers； the sentiments of nature are blunted； a constant； obstinate； uniform labour； debases all the faculties。 One blushes for the human species； to see how low on the scale of degradation it can descend； how much beneath the condition of animals it can voluntarily submit to maintain life； and； notwithstanding all the benefits of social order； notwithstanding the advantages which man has gained from the arts； one is sometimes tempted to execrate the division of labour； and the invention of manufactures on beholding to what extremes of wretchedness they have reduced beings created equal with ourselves。 The misery of the savage hunter； who dies so frequently of hunger； is not equal to that of millions of families； whom a manufacturer sometimes dismisses； because at least there remains to the former； all the energy； and all the intelligence； which he has put to proof during all his life。 When he dies for want of finding game； he yields to a necessity which nature herself presents； and to which he knew； from the beginning； he must submit； as to sickness； or to old age。 But the artisan； dismissed from his workshop； with his wife and children； has beforehand lost the strength of his soul and his body； he is still surrounded with riches； he still sees beside him； at every step； the food which he requires； and if society refuses him the labour by which he offers； till his last moment； to purchase bread； it is men； not nature； that he blames。 Even when persons do not actually die of hunger； even when the aids of charity are eagerly administered to all indigent families； discouragement and suffering produce their cruel effects on the poor； the diseases of the soul are communicated to the body； epidemics are multiplied； children die in a few months after their birth； and the suppression of labour causes more cruel ravages than the cruellest war： besides； fatal habits； either of mendicity or idleness； take root in the population； another course is given to trade； another direction to fashion； and even after death has cleared the ranks of workmen； those who remain are no longer in a condition to support the competition of foreigners。 The causes of diminution in the demand for labour； often belong to polity； properly so called； rather than to political economy。 There is； perhaps； none more efficacious than the loss or diminution of liberty； When a nation begins to alienate this precious possession； each citizen thinks himself less secure of his fortune； of the fruits of his labour； each abates something of the activity of his mind； and his spirit of industry。 The virtues which accompany labour； … sobriety； constancy； economy … give place to the vices of idleness； to intemperance； dissipation； and forgetfulness of the future。 Trade； industry； activity； are regarded with contempt； in a state where the people are nothing； whilst all distinction； all honours； are reserved for noble indolence。 Favour； intrigue； flattery； and all the arts of courtiers； which debase the soul； are roads to fortune； much more sure and rapid than strength of character； bold and enterprising activity； or a spirit of speculation。 Intriguers are multiplied daily； they regard with contempt those who follow the only honourable path to fortune； that in which none makes progress except by his merit or his labour。 One cause of depopulation is； however； presented； which lies within the narrowest range of political economy。 The progress of the arts； the progress of industry； and hence even that of wealth and prosperity； discover economical methods of producing all the fruits of labour； by employing a smaller number of workmen。 Animals are substituted for men in almost all the details of agriculture； and machines are substituted for men in all the operations of manufactures。 So long as a nation finds within its reach a market sufficiently extensive to secure for all its productions a prompt and advantageous circulation； each of those discoveries is an advantage； because； instead of diminishing the number of workmen； it augments the mass of labour and its produce。 A nation which happens to originate discoveries； succeeds； for a long time； in extending its market in proportion to the number of hands set free by every new invention。 It immediately employs them in augmenting the produce； which the discovery promises to furnish at a cheaper rate。 But a period arrives at last； when the whole civilized world is but one market； and when new customers cannot be found in new nations。 The demand of the universal market is then a precise quantity； which the different industrious nations dispute with each other； if one furnish more； another must furnish less。 The total sale can only be increased by the progress of general opulence； or because conveniences； formerly confined to the rich； are brought within the reach of the poor。 The invention of the stocking frame； by means of which one man does as much work as a hundred did before； was a benefit for humanity； only because； at the same time； the progress of civilization； of population； and of wealth； increased the number of consumers。 New counties adopted the customs of Europe； and this article of dress； formerly reserved for the rich； has now descended to the poorest classes。 But if； at the present day； some new discovery should enable us； by a single stocking…frame； to do the work which ten years ago was done by a hundred； this discovery would be a national misfortune； for the number of consumers can scarcely increase； and it would then be the number of producers which would be diminished。 This example may show us the general rule： Whenever a discovery； economizing labour； brings within the reach of a poorer class what was previously confined to the rich； it extends the market； and whilst benefiting undertakers； and poor consumers； it does no harm to workmen。 But when the discovery cannot increase the number of consumers； though it serves them at a cheaper rate； either because they are already all furnished； or because the thing produced can never be useful to them； however low it may fall； … the discovery becomes a human calamity； because it is advantageous but to a certain manufacturer； and that only at the expense of his brethren； or it benefits a single nation； and that only at the expense of others。 This national benefit； if purchased at the expense of wretchedness and famine to foreign artisans； would not in itself be much worth coveting； it is； besides； very far from being certain。 From the progress of communication between different states； from the skill of manufacturers； a discovery in one country is imitated in every other before the former has gained any great profit from it。 It will doubtless be said； that whoever introduces a saving in any article of his consumption； preserving still the same revenue； will consume what he saves from the fall of price in such and such an article； by a new expenditure； for which he will put in requisition a new labour。 But there never will be any proportion between this new demand and the labour suspended on account of it。 On one hand； consumers make use of goods a little finer； a little prettier； at the same price。 The clothes with which the poor workman is dressed； are a little superior in quality； are really worth a little more than those which covered his father； at the expense of the same part of his wages。 But himself does not perceive this advantage。 Decency； which according to this station； he is obliged to consult； leaves him no choice； he must dress like his equals； without finding more enjoyment； he makes no saving in this article； he cannot apply it to any other expense。 On the other hand； the price of goods is not always established in direct proportion to the labour they require； but in a very complicated proportion subsisting between this annual labour； the circulating capital； and a primary； unrenewed labour； consumed in building the manufactory； constructing the machinery with expensive and often foreign materials。 Hence； even when a hundred workmen are dismissed； that the work may be done with one by means of machinery；the goods are not reduced to the hundredth part of their price。 The stocking…frame economizes work nearly in this proportion； yet it scarcely produces stockings ten per cent。 cheaper than those made with the needle。 Notwithstanding the invention of large mills for spinning wool； silk； cotton； women continue to be employed in spinning with the wheel； or even with the distaff； a certain proof that the saving does not exceed ten per cent。 The same observation may be extended to all improved manufactures： they have never diminished the price of their produce； except in arithmetical progression； while they have suspended workmanship in geometrical progression。 Let us compare this saving in workmanship with the saving in price； according to the most simple calculation on the commonest manufacture。 A hundred thousand women； who knit with the needle each a hundred pair of stockings annually； produce ten million pairs； which； at 5s。 a…piece； would sell at 2；500；000 l。： the raw material is worth a fifth of this。 There remains 2；000；000 to distribute among 100；000 workmen； or 20 l。 a…head。 The same work is done at present on the frame by 1000 workmen； and comes in ten per cent。 cheaper； at 4s。 6d。 a pair； or； 2；250；000 l。 In all the nation therefore saves 250；000 l。 If employed solely in workmanship； this sum would be sufficient to maintain 12；500 of the workers who have been dismissed。 But this is not what happens； the consumer； accustomed to buy
