political economy-第5章

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sbandman；　he　did　not　sow　all　his　productive　wealth；　a　part　of　it　had　been　devoted　to　such　buildings；　or　machines；　or　implements；　as　make　labour　more　easy　and　productive；　just　in　the　way　that　a　part　of　the　husbandman's　wealth　was　devoted　to　permanent　works；　destined　to　render　the　ground　more　fertile。　It　is　thus　that　we　see　the　different　kinds　of　wealth　springing　up　and　separating；　whilst　each　exerts　a　different　influence　on　its　own　reproduction。　The　funds　of　consumption；　such　as　domestic　necessaries；　do　not　any　longer　produce　fruit；　after　each　has　secured　them　for　his　own　use；　fixed　capital；　such　as　improvement　of　the　soil；　canals　of　irrigation；　and　machinery；　during　the　progress　of　its　own　slow　consumption；　co…operates　with　labour　of　which　it　augments　the　products；　and；　lastly；　circulating　capital；　such　as　seed；　wages；　and　raw　materials；　destined　to　be　wrought；　is　consumed　annually；　or　even　more　rapidly；　in　order　to　be　again　re…produced。　It　is　essentially　important　to　remark；　that　those　three　kinds　of　wealth　are　all　equally　advancing　towards　consumption。　But　the　first　when　consumed　is　absolutely　destroyed；　for　societies；　as　for　individuals；　it　is　merely　an　expense：　whereas　the　second　and　third；　after　being　consumed；　are　re…produced　under　a　new　form；　and　for　societies；　as　for　individuals；　the　consumption　of　them　is　a　putting　out　to　profit；　or　the　circulation　of　capitals。　　　　　We　shall　better　understand　this　movement　of　wealth；　which；　perhaps；　it　is　difficult　to　follow；　by　fixing　our　observation　on　a　single　family　engaged　in　the　simplest　of　all　speculations。　A　solitary　farmer　has　reaped　a　hundred　bags　of　corn；　and　is　destitute　of　any　market　to　which　he　can　carry　it。　At　all　events；　this　corn　must　be　consumed　within　the　year；　otherwise　it　will　be　worth　nothing　to　the　farmer。　But　he　and　his　family　may　require　only　thirty　bags　of　it；　this　is　his　expense：　another　thirty　may　be　employed　to　support　workmen　engaged　in　felling　the　forests；　or　draining　the　marshes　of　the　neighbourhood；　to　put　them　under　culture；　this　will　be　converting　thirty　bags　into　fixed　capital：　and；　finally；　the　remaining　forty　bags　may　be　sown；　and　formed　into　a　circulating　capital；　in　place　of　the　twenty　bags　sown　the　preceding　year。　The　hundred　are　thus　consumed；　but　seventy　of　them　are　put　out　to　profit；　they　will　reappear　partly　at　the　next　harvest；　partly　at　those　which　follow。　By　this　means；　in　consuming　he　will　have　saved。　Yet　the　limits　of　such　an　operation　are　easily　discerned。　If；　this　year；　out　of　the　hundred　bags　which　he　reaped；　he　could　get　no　more　than　sixty　eaten；　who　will　eat　the　two　hundred　bags　produced　next　year　by　the　augmentation　of　his　seed？*　　　　　Resuming　these　three　sorts　of　wealth；　which；　as　we　have　seen；　become　distinct　in　a　private　family；　let　us　now　consider　each　sort　with　regard　to　the　whole　nation；　and　see　how　the　national　revenue　may　arise　from　this　division。　　　　　As　the　farmer　required　a　primitive　quantity　of　labour　to　be　expended　in　cutting　down　the　forests；　and　draining　the　marshes　which　he　meant　to　cultivate；　so；　for　every　kind　of　enterprise；　there　is　required　a　primitive　quantity　of　labour　to　facilitate　and　augment　the　circulating　capital。　The　ore　cannot　be　obtained　till　the　mine　is　opened；　canals　must　be　dug；　machinery　and　mills　must　be　constructed；　before　they　can　be　used；　manufactories　must　be　built；　and　looms　set　up；　before　the　wool；　the　hemp；　or　the　silk　can　be　weaved。　This　first　advance　is　always　accomplished　by　labour；　this　labour　is　always　represented　by　wages；　and　these　wages　are　always　exchanged　for　necessaries　of　life；　which　the　workmen　consume　in　executing　their　task。　Hence　what　we　have　called　fixed　capital；　is　a　part　of　the　annual　consumption；　transformed　into　durable　establishments；　calculated　to　increase　the　productive　power　of　future　labour。　Such　establishments　themselves　grow　old；　decay；　and　are　slowly　consumed　in　their　turn；　after　having　long　contributed　to　augment　the　annual　production。　　　　　As　the　farmer　required　seed；　which；　after　being　committed　to　the　earth；　was　returned　fivefold　in　harvest；　so　likewise；　every　undertaker　of　useful　labour　requires　raw　materials　to　work　upon；　and　wages　for　his　workmen；　equivalent　to　the　necessaries　of　life　consumed　by　them　in　their　labour。　His　operations　thus　begin　with　a　consumption；　and　this　is　followed　by　a　reproduction　which　should　be　more　abundant；　since　it　must　be　equivalent　to　the　raw　materials　worked　upon；　so　the　necessaries　of　life　consumed　by　his　workmen　in　their　labour；　to　the　sum　by　which　his　machinery　and　all　his　fixed　capitals　have　been　deteriorated　during　the　production；　and　lastly　to　the　profit　of　all　concerned　in　the　labour；　who　have　supported　its　fatigues　solely　in　the　hope　of　gaining　by　it。　The　farmer　sowed　twenty　bags　of　corn　to　reap　a　hundred；　the　manufacturer　will　make　a　calculation　nearly　similar。　And　as　the　farmer　at　harvest　must　recover　not　only　a　compensation　for　his　seed；　but　likewise　for　all　his　labours；　so　the　manufacturer　must　find　in　his　production；　not　the　raw　materials　only；　but　all　the　wages　of　his　workmen；　all　the　interests　and　profits　of　his　fixed　capital；　with　all　the　interests　and　profits　of　his　circulating　capital。　　　　　In　the　last　place；　the　farmer　may　augment　his　seed　every　year；　but　he　will　not　fail　to　recollect　that；　since　his　crops　increase　in　the　same　necessaries；　he　is　not　sure　of　always　finding　men　to　eat　them。　The　manufacturer；　in　like　manner；　devoting　the　savings　of　each　year　to　increase　his　re…production；　must　recollect　the　necessity　of　finding　purchasers　and　consumers　for　the　increasing　products　of　his　establishment。　　　　　Since　the　fund　destined　for　consumption　no　longer　produces　any　thing；　and　since　each　man　strives　incessantly　to　preserve　and　augment　his　fortune；　each　will　also　restrict　his　consumable　fund；　and　instead　of　accumulating　in　his　house　a　quantity　of　necessaries　greatly　superior　to　what　he　can　consume；　he　will　augment　his　fixed　or　circulating　capital；　by　all　that　he　does　not　expend。　In　the　present　condition　of　society；　a　part　of　the　fund　destined　for　consumption　remains　in　the　retail…dealer's　hand；　awaiting　the　buyer's　confidence；　another　part　destined　to　be　consumed　very　slowly；　as　houses；　furniture；　carriages；　horses；　continues　in　the　hands　of　persons　whose　business　it　is　to　sell　the　use　of　it；　without　abandoning　the　property。　A　considerable　portion　of　the　wealth　of　opulent　nations　is　constantly　thrown　back　into　the　fields　destined　for　consumption；　but　although　it　still　gives　profit　to　its　holders；　it　has　ceased　to　augment　the　national　re…production。　　　　　The　annual　distribution　of　the　wealth；　annually　reproduced；　among　all　the　citizens　composing　the　nation；　constitutes　the　national　revenue。　It　consists　of　all　the　value；　by　which　the　re…production　surpasses　the　consumption　that　produced　it。　Thus　the　farmer；　after　deducting　from　his　crop　a　quantity　equal　to　the　seed　of　the　foregoing　year；　finds　remaining　the　part　which　is　to　support　his　family；　…　a　revenue　to　which　they　have　acquired　right　by　means　of　their　annual　labour；　the　part　which　is　to　support　his　workmen；　who　have　acquired　the　right　to　it　by　the　same　title；　the　part　with　which　he　is　to　satisfy　the　landlord；　who　has　acquired　right　to　this　revenue　by　the　original　improvement　of　the　soil；　now　no　longer　repeated；　and　lastly；　the　part　with　which　he　is　to　pay　the　interest　of　his　debts；　or　indemnify　himself　for　the　employment　of　his　own　capital　…　　a　revenue　to　which　he　has　acquired　right　by　the　primitive　labours　which　produced　his　capital。　　　　　So　likewise；　the　manufacturer　finds；　in　the　annual　produce　of　his　manufactory；　first　the　raw　material　employed；　secondly；　the　equivalent　of　his　own　wages；　and　those　of　his　workmen；　to　which　their　labour　alone　gives　them　right；　thirdly；　an　equivalent　for　the　annual　detriment　and　interest　of　his　fixed　capital；　to　which　revenue　he　or　the　proprietor　has　acquired　right　by　a　primitive　labour；　and　lastly；　an　equivalent　for　the　interest　of　his　circulating　capital；　which　has　been　produced　by　another　primitive　labour。　　　　　It　is　to　be　observed　that；　among　those　who　share　the　national　revenue；　some　acquire　a　new　right　in　it　every　year　by　a　new　labour；　others　have　previously　acquired　a　permanent　right　by　a　primitive　labour；　which　has　rendered　the　annual　labour　more　advantageous。　No　one　obtains　a　share　of　the　national　revenue；　except　in　virtue　of　what　he　himself　or　his　representatives　have　accomplished　to　produce　it；　unless；　as　we　shall　soon　see；　he　receives　it　at　second　hand；　from　its　primitive　proprietors；　by　way　of　compensation　for　services　done　to　them。　Now；　whoever　consumes　without　fulfilling　the　condition　which　alone　gives　him　right　to　the　revenue；　whoever　consumes　without　having　a　revenue；　or　beyond　what　he　has；　whoever　consumes　his　capital　in　place　of　revenue；　is　advancing　to　ruin；　and　a　nation　composed　of　such　consumers　is　advancing　to　ruin　likewise。　Revenue；　indeed；　is　that　quantity　by　which　the　national　wealth　is　increased　every　year；　and　which　accordingly　may　be　destroyed；　without　the　nation's　becoming　poorer；　but　the　nation　which；　without　re…production；　destroys　a　quantity　of　wealth；　superior　in　this　annual　increase；　destroys　the　very　means　by　which　it　would　have　acquired　an　equal　re…production　in　subsequent　years。　　　　　By　a　circular　concatenation；　in　which　every　effect　becomes　a　cause　in　its　turn；　production　gives　revenue；　revenue　furnishes　and　regulates　a　consumable　fund；　which　fund　again　causes　production　and　measures　it。　The　national　wealth　continues　to　augment；　and　the　state　to　prosper；　so　long　as　these　three　quantities；　which　are　proportional　to　each　other；　continue　to　augment　in　a　gradual　manner；　but　whenever　the　proportion　among　them　is　broken；　the　state　decays。　A　derangement　of　the　mutual　proportion　subsisting　among　production；　revenue；　and　consumption；　becomes　equally　prejudicial　to　the　nation；　whether　the　production　give　a　revenue　smaller　than　usual；　in　which　case　a　part　of　the　capital　must　pass　to　the　fund　of　consumption；　or　whether；　on　the　contrary；　this　consumption　diminish；　and　no　longer　call　for　a　fresh　production。　To　cause　distress　in　the　state；　it　is　enough　that　the　equilibrium　be　broken。　Production　may　diminish　when　habits　of　idleness　gain　footing　among　the　labouring　classes；　capital　may　diminish　when　prodigality　and　luxury　become　fashionable；　and　lastly；　consumption　may　diminish　from　causes　of　poverty；　unconnected　with　the　diminution　of　labour；　and　yet；　as　it　will　not　offer　employment　for　future　re…production；　it　must　diminish　labour　in　its　turn。　　　　　Thus　nations　incur　dangers　that　seem　incompatible：　they　fall　into　ruin　equally　by　spending　too　much；　and　by　spending　too　little。　A　nation　spends　too　much　whenever　it　exceeds　its　revenue；　because　it　cannot　do　so　except　by　encroaching　on　its　capital；　and　thus　diminishing　future　production；　it　then　does　what　the　solitary　cultivator　would　do　if　he　should　eat　the　corn　which　ought　to　be　secured　for　seed。　A　nation　spends　too　little；　whenever；　being　destitute　of　foreign　commerce；　it　does　not　consume　its　own　production；　or　when；　enjoying　foreign　commerce；　it　does　not　consume　the　excess　of　its　production　above　its　exportation；　for；　if　so；　it　soon　comes　into　the　condition　of　the　solitary　cultivator；　who　having　filled　all　his　granaries　far　beyond　the　probability　of　consumption；　would　be　obliged；