political economy-第6章

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or；　who　having　filled　all　his　granaries　far　beyond　the　probability　of　consumption；　would　be　obliged；　that　he　might　not　work　in　vain；　partly　to　abandon　his　cultivation　of　the　ground。　　　　　The　nation　does　not　indeed　spend　all　that　it　consumes；　the　name　expenditure；　in　such　a　case；　can　properly　be　given　to　that　consumption　only　which　produces　nothing；　while　that　part　of　the　consumption　which　represents　the　wages　of　productive　workmen；　is　an　employment　of　funds；　not　an　expenditure。　Thus；　the　nation；　when　it　forms　manufacturing　establishments；　does　not　diminish　its　consumption；　it　consumes；　in　a　productive　manner；　what　it　formerly　consumed　unproductively。　Still；　however；　this　employment　of　the　national　produce　in　giving　movement　to　new　labour；　though　it　does　not　destroy　the　balance　between　production　and　consumption；　renders　it　much　more　complex。　The　new　produce　thus　obtained　must；　at　last；　find　a　consumer；　and　though　it　may　be　generally　affirmed；　that　to　increase　the　labour　is　to　increase　the　wealth；　and　with　it　in　a　similar　proportion　the　revenue　and　the　consumption；　still　it　is　any　thing　but　proved；　that　by　too　rapid　an　increase　of　its　labour　a　nation　may　not　altogether　deviate　from　the　proper　rate　of　consumption；　and　thus　ruin　itself　by　economy　as　well　as　prodigality。　Happily；　in　most　cases；　the　increase　of　capital；　of　revenue　and　of　consumption；　requires　no　superintendence；　they　proceed；　of　their　own　accord；　with　an　equal　pace；　and　when　one　of　them；　at　any　time；　happens　to　pass　the　others　for　an　instant；　foreign　commerce　is　almost　always　ready　to　restore　the　equilibrium。　　　　　We　have　designedly　carried　on　our　history　of　the　formation　and　progress　of　wealth　thus　far；　without　mentioning　a　circulating　medium；　to　show；　that；　in　fact；　such　an　instrument　is　not　necessary　for　its　development。　A　circulating　medium　did　not　create　wealth；　but　it　simplified　all　the　relations；　and　facilitated　all　the　transactions　of　commerce；　it　gave　to　each　the　means　of　finding　sooner　what　suited　him　best；　and　thus　presenting　an　advantage　to　every　one；　it　still　further　increased　the　wealth；　which　was　already　increasing　without　it。　　　　　The　precious　metals　are　one　of　the　numerous　values　produced　by　the　labour　of　man；　and　applicable　to　his　use。　It　was　soon　discovered　that　they；　more　than　any　other　species　of　riches；　possessed　the　property　of　being　preserved　without　alteration　for　any　length　of　time；　and　the　no　less　valuable　one　of　uniting　easily　into　a　single　whole；　after　being　divided　almost　infinitely。　The　two　halves　of　a　piece　of　cloth；　of　a　fleece；　and　still　less　of　an　ox；　…　though　these　are　supposed　to　have　once　been　employed　as　money；　…　　were　not　worth　the　whole；　but　the　two　halves；　the　four　quarters　of　a　pound　of　gold　are　always；　and　will　be；　a　pound　of　gold；　however　long　they　may　be　kept。　As　the　first　exchange　of　which　men　feel　the　need；　is　that　which　enables　them　to　preserve　the　fruit　of　their　labour　for　a　future　season；　every　one　became　eager　to　get　precious　metals　in　exchange　for　his　commodity；　whatever　it　might　be；　not　because　he　at　all　intended　to　use　those　metals　himself；　but　because　he　was　sure　of　being　able　to　exchange　them　at　any　time　afterwards；　in　the　same　manner；　and　for　the　same　reason；　against　whatever　article　he　might　then　need。　From　that　time　the　precious　metals　began　to　he　sought　after；　not　that　they　might　be　employed　in　the　use　of　man；　as　ornaments　or　utensils；　but　that　they　might　be　accumulated；　at　first；　as　representing　every　species　of　wealth；　and　then　that　they　might　be　used　in　commerce；　as　the　means　of　facilitating　all　kinds　of　exchange。　　　　　Gold　dust；　in　its　primitive　state；　continues；　even　now；　to　be　the　medium　of　exchange　among　the　African　nations。　But　when　once　the　value　of　gold　comes　to　be　universally　admitted；　there　remains　but　a　single　step；　much　easier　and　far　less　important；　till　it　be　converted　into　coin；　which　warrants；　by　a　legal　stamp；　the　weight　and　the　fineness　of　every　particle　of　the　precious　metals　employed　in　circulation。　　　　　The　invention　of　money　gave　quite　a　new　activity　to　exchange。　Whoever　happened　to　possess　any　superfluity　had　no　longer　occasion　to　seek　the　article　likely　to　be　needed　in　time　to　come。　He　no　longer　delayed　selling　his　corn　till　he　should　meet　the　oil…merchant　or　the　wool…dealer　to　offer　them　the　thing　they　wanted；　he　reckoned　it　enough　to　find　money；　being　certain　that　for　this　he　could　always　obtain　any　required　commodity。　The　buyer；　too；　on　his　side；　needed　not　to　study　what　would　suit　the　seller：　money　was　always　sure　to　satisfy　all　his　demands。　Before　the　invention　of　a　circulating　medium；　a　fortunate　concurrence　of　conveniences　was　requisite　for　an　exchange：　whereas　after　this　invention；　there　could　scarcely　be　a　buyer　that　did　not　find　a　seller；　or　a　seller　who　did　not　find　a　buyer。　　　　　As　exchanges；　and　afterwards　sales　and　purchases；　were　voluntary；　it　might　be　inferred　that　all　values　were　given　for　values　completely　equal。　It　is　more　correct；　however；　to　say；　that　bargains　were　never　made　without　advantages　to　both　parties。　The　seller　found　a　profit　in　selling；　the　buyer　in　buying。　The　one　drew　more　advantages　from　the　money　which　he　received；　than　he　would　have　done　from　his　merchandise；　the　other　more　advantage　from　the　merchandise　which　he　acquired；　than　he　would　have　done　from　his　money。　Both　parties　had　gained；　and　hence　the　nation　gained　doubly　by　their　bargain。　On　the　same　principle　when　a　master　set　any　workman　to　labour；　and　gave　him　in　exchange　for　the　work　expected　to　be　done；　a　wage　which　corresponded　to　the　workman's　maintenance　during　his　labour；　…　both　these　contractors　gained；　the　workman　because　he　had　received　in　advance　the　fruit　of　his　labour　before　it　was　accomplished；　…　the　master；　because　this　workman's　labour　was　worth　more　than　his　wages。　The　nation　gained　with　both；　for　as　the　national　wealth　must；　at　the　long　run；　be　realized　in　enjoyment；　Whatever　augments　the　enjoyment　of　individuals；　must　be　considered　as　a　gain　for　all。　　　　　Thus　the　labour　of　man　created　wealth；　but　wealth；　in　its　turn；　created　the　labour　of　man。　Wherever　wealth　offered　a　profit；　a　wage；　a　subsistence；　it　produced　a　class　of　men；　eager　to　acquire　them。　The　accumulation　of　primary　labour　had　created　the　value　of　land；　by　unfolding　its　productive　power。　This　power；　as　it　seconded　the　labour；　of　man；　henceforth　became　a　species　of　wealth；　and　a　person　possessed　of　land　might；　without　himself　labouring；　obtain　payment　for　surrendering　the　use　of　it　to　such　as　laboured。　Hence　the　origin　of　sales　and　leases　of　land。　The　farmer　again　might　hire　workmen　to　labour；　and　thus　might　acquire　the　advantages　attached　to　exchanging　present　subsistence　against　distant　produce。　He　incurred　all　the　charges　of　cultivation；　he　drew　all　its　profits；　and　left　to　his　workmen　nothing　but　their　wages。　Thus　the　revenues　of　land；　all　comprised　in　the　annual　crop；　were　divided　among　three　classes　of　men；　under　the　name　of　rent；　profit；　and　wages；　whilst　a　surplus　included　the　seed　and　the　farmer's　advance。　　　　　The　manufacturer　again　possessed　machinery　and　materials：　he　offered　to　his　labourers　an　immediate　subsistence　for　the　fruit　of　a　labour　which　required　time　and　long　advances。　He　enabled　them　to　live；　he　furnished　them　with　lodging；　tools；　machinery；　and　paid　himself　with　interest　by　their　work。　If；　in　his　own　hand；　he　had　not　enough　of　accumulated　wealth；　or　enough　of　the　money　which　represents　it；　to　provide　his　workmen　with　all　the　advances　which　their　enterprise　required；　and　to　wait　for　the　sale　of　their　labour；　he　borrowed　money；　and　paid　the　lender　an　interest；　analogous　to　the　rent　which　a　farmer　pays　his　landlord。　The　labour　of　the　workmen　employed　by　him　annually　produced　a　certain　quantity　of　goods；　in　the　value　of　which　were　to　be　included　the　interest　of　capital　for　the　money…lender；　the　rent　of　implements；　machines；　immovables；　and　all　kinds　of　fixed　capital；　the　profits　of　the　head　manufacturer；　the　wages　of　his　workmen；　and；　lastly；　the　capital　expended　in　raw　materials；　together　with　the　whole　of　that　capital　which；　as　it　circulates　annually　in　the　manufactory；　must　be　deducted　from　its　annual　produce；　in　order　to　leave　the　net　revenue。　　　　　The　produce　of　the　soil　and　of　manufactories　belonged　often　to　climates　very　distant　from　those　inhabited　by　their　consumers。　A　class　of　men　undertook　to　facilitate　all　kinds　of　exchange；　on　condition　of　sharing　in　the　profits　which　it　yields。　These　men　gave　money　to　the　producer；　at　the　time　when　his　work　was　finished　and　ready　for　sale；　after　which　having　transported　the　merchandise　to　the　place　where　it　was　wanted；　they　waited　the　consumer's　convenience；　and　retailed　to　him　in　parcels　what　he　could　not　purchase　all　at　once。　They　did　service　to　every　one；　and　repaid　themselves　for　it　by　the　share　which　is　named　profits　of　trade。　The　advantage　arising　from　a　judicious　management　of　exchanges　was　the　origin　of　those　profits。　In　the　north；　a　producer　reckoned　two　measures　of　his　merchandize　equivalent　to　one　of　southern　merchandize。　In　the　south；　on　the　other　hand；　a　producer　reckoned　two　measures　of　his　merchandize　equivalent　to　one　of　northern　merchandize。　Between　two　equations　so　different　there　was　room　to　cover　all　the　expenses　of　transport；　all　the　profits　of　trade；　and　interest　for　all　the　money　advanced　to　carry　it　on。　In　fact；　at　the　sale　of　such　commodities　transported　by　commerce；　there　must　be　realized；　first　the　capital　repaid　to　the　manufacturer；　then　the　wages　of　the　sailors；　carriers；　clerks；　and　all　persons　employed　by　the　trader；　next　the　interest　of　all　those　funds　to　which　he　gives　movement；　and　lastly；　the　mercantile　profit。　　　　　Society　requires　something　more　than　wealth；　it　would　not　be　complete　if　it　contained　nothing　but　productive　labourers。　It　requires　administrators；　judges；　lawgivers；　men　employed　about　its　general　interests；　soldiers　and　sailors　to　defend　it。　No　one　of　those　classes　produces　any　thing；　their　labour　never　assumes　a　material　shape；　it　is　not　susceptible　of　accumulation。　Yet　without　their　assistance　all　the　wealth　arising　from　productive　labour　would　be　destroyed　by　violence；　and　work　would　cease；　if　the　labourer　could　not　calculate　on　peaceably　enjoying　its　fruits。　To　support　this　guardian　population；　a　part　must　be　deducted　from　the　funds　created　annually　by　labour。　But　as　the　service　done　to　the　community；　by　such　persons；　how　important　soever　it　be；　is　felt　by　no　one　in　particular；　it　cannot；　like　other　services；　be　an　object　of　exchange。　The　community　itself　was　under　the　necessity　of　paying　it　by　a　forced　contribution　from　the　revenues　of　all。　It　was　not　long；　indeed；　till　this　contribution　came　to　be　regulated　by　the　persons　destined　to　profit　from　it；　and　hence　the　contributors　were　loaded　without　measure；　civil　and　military　offices　were　multiplied　far　beyond　what　the　public　weal　required；　there　was　too　much　government；　too　much　defence　of　men；　who　were　forced　to　accept　those　services；　and　to　pay　them；　superfluous　or　even　burdensome　as　they　might　be；　and　the　rulers　of　nations；　established　to　protect　wealth；　were　often　the　main　authors　of　its　dilapidation。　　　　　Society　needs　that　kind　of　labour　which　produces　mental　enjoyments；　and　as　mental　enjoyments　are；　nearly　all；　immaterial；　the　objects　destined　to　satisfy　them　cann