political economy-第7章

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nts；　and　as　mental　enjoyments　are；　nearly　all；　immaterial；　the　objects　destined　to　satisfy　them　cannot　be　accumulated。　Religion；　science；　the　arts；　yield　happiness　to　man；　their　origin　is　labour；　their　end　enjoyment；　but　what　belongs　only　to　the　soul　is　not　capable　of　being　treasured　up。　If　a　nation；　however；　does　not　reckon　literature　and　the　arts　among　its　wealth；　it　may　reckon　literary　men　and　artists；　the　education　they　receive；　the　distinction　they　acquire；　accumulate　a　high　value　on　their　heads；　and　the　labour　which　they　execute　being　often　better　paid　than　that　of　the　most　skilled　workmen；　may　thus　contribute　to　the　spread　of　opulence。　　　　　Society；　in　the　last　place；　needs　those　kinds　of　labour；　the　object　of　which　is　to　take　care　of　the　persons；　not　the　fortunes　of　men。　Such　labour　may　be　of　the　most　elevated；　or　of　the　most　servile　kind：　according　as　it　requires　either　the　knowledge　of　nature　and　the　command　of　her　secrets；　like　the　physician's　labour；　or　merely　complaisance　and　obedience　to　the　will　of　a　master；　like　the　footman's　labour。　All　of　them　are　species　of　labour　intended　for　enjoyment；　and　differing　from　productive　labour；　only　in　so　far　as　their　effects　are　incapable　of　accumulation。　Hence；　though　they　add　to　the　well…being　of　a　state；　they　do　not　add　to　its　wealth；　and　such　as　are　employed　in　them　must　live　on　voluntary　contributions　drawn　from　the　revenue　formed　by　other　kinds　of　labour。

Chapter　3

Of　Territorial　Wealth


　　　　The　riches　proceeding　from　land　should　be　the　first　to　engage　the　attention　of　an　economist　or　a　legislator。　They　are　the　most　necessary　of　all；　because　it　is　from　the　ground　that　our　subsistence　is　derived；　because　they　furnish　the　materials　for　every　other　kind　of　labour；　and　lastly；　because；　in　preparation；　they　constantly　employ　the　half；　often　much　more　than　the　half；　of　all　the　nation。　The　class　of　people　who　cultivate　the　ground　are　particularly　valuable　for　bodily　qualities　fitted　to　make　excellent　soldiers；　and　for　mental　qualities　fitted　to　make　good　citizens。　The　happiness　of　a　rural　population　is　also　more　easily　provided　for　than　that　of　a　city　population；　the　progress　of　this　kind　of　wealth　is　more　easily　followed；　and　government　is　more　culpable　when　it　allows　agriculture　to　decay；　because　it　almost　always　lies　in　the　power　of　government　to　make　it　flourish。　　　　　The　annual　revenue　of　land；　or　the　annual　crop；　is　decomposed；　as　we　observed　above；　in　the　following　manner。　One　part　of　the　fruits；　produced　by　labour；　is　destined　to　pay　the　proprietor　for　the　assistance　which　the　earth　has　given　to　the　labour　of　men；　and　also　for　the　interest　of　all　the　capital　successively　employed　to　improve　the　soil。　This　portion　alone　is　called　the　net　revenue。　Another　part　of　the　fruits　replaces　what　has　been　consumed　in　executing　the　labour　to　which　the　crop　is　due；　the　seed；　and　all　the　cultivator's　advances。　Economists　call　this　portion　the　resumption。　Another　part　remains　for　a　profit　to　the　person　who　directed　the　labours　of　the　ground：　it　is　proportionate　to　his　industry　and　the　capital　advanced　by　him。　Government　likewise　takes　a　share　of　all　those　fruits；　and　by　various　imposts　diminishes　the　proprietor's　rent；　the　cultivator's　profit；　and　the　day…labourer's　wages；　in　order　to　form　a　revenue　for　another　class　of　persons。　Nor　do　the　fruits　distributed　among　the　workmen；　the　superintendent　of　the　labour；　and　the　proprietor；　entirely　remain　with　them　in　kind：　after　having　kept　a　portion　requisite　for　their　subsistence；　the　whole　then　equally　part　with　what　remains；　in　exchange　for　objects　produced　by　the　industry　of　towns；　and　it　is　by　means　of　this　exchange；　that　all　other　classes　of　the　nation　are　supplied　with　food。　　　　　The　net　revenue　of　territorial　produce　is　considered　to　be　that　portion　which　remains　with　proprietors　after　the　expenses　of　cultivation　have　been　paid。　Proprietors　frequently　imagine　that　a　system　of　cultivation　is　the　better；　the　higher　those　rents　are：　what　concerns　the　nation；　however；　what　should　engage　the　economist's　undivided　attention；　is　the　gross　produce；　or　the　total　amount　of　the　crop；　by　which　subsistence　is　provided　for　the　whole　nation；　and　the　comfort　of　all　classes　is　secured。　The　former　comprehends　but　the　revenue　of　the　rich　and　idle；　the　latter　farther　comprehends　the　revenue　of　all　such　as　labour；　or　cause　their　capital　to　labour。　　　　　But　a　gradual　increase　of　the　gross　produce　may　itself　be　the　consequence　of　a　state　of　suffering；　…　if　the　population；　growing　too　numerous；　can　no　longer　find　a　sufficient　recompense　in　the　wages　of　labour；　and　if；　struggling　without　protection　against　the　proprietors　of　land；　to　whom　limitation　of　number　gives　all　the　advantage　of　a　monopoly；　that　population　is　reduced　to　purchase；　by　excessive　labour；　so　small　an　augmentation　of　produce；　as　to　leave　it　constantly　depressed　by　want；　There　is　no　department　of　political　economy　which　ought　not　to　be　judged　in　its　relation　to　the　happiness　of　the　people　in　general；　and　a　system　of　social　order　is　always　bad　when　the　greater　part　of　the　population　suffers　under　it。　　　　　Commercial　wealth　is　augmented　and　distributed　by　exchange；　and　even　the　produce　of　the　ground；　so　soon　as　it　is　gathered　in；　belongs　likewise　to　commerce。　Territorial　wealth；　on　the　other　hand；　is　created　by　means　of　permanent　contacts。　With　regard　to　it；　the　economist's　attention　should　first　be　directed　to　the　progress　of　cultivation：　next　to　the　mode　in　which　the　produce　of　the　harvest　is　distributed　among　those　who　contribute　to　its　growth；　and　lastly；　to　the　nature　of　those　rights　which　belong　to　the　proprietors　of　land；　and　to　the　effects　resulting　from　an　alienation　of　their　property。　　　　　The　progress　of　social　order；　the　additional　security；　the　protection　which　government　holds　out　to　the　rights　of　all；　together　with　the　increase　of　population；　induce　the　cultivator　to　entrust　to　the　ground；　for　a　longer　or　shorter　period；　the　labour　which　constitutes　his　wealth。　In　the　timorous　condition　of　barbarianism；　he　will　not；　at　his　own　expense；　increase　the　value　of　an　immovable　possession；　which　perhaps　he　may　be　forced　to　abandon　at　a　moment's　warning。　But　in　the　security　of　complete　civilization；　he　regards　his　immovable　possessions　as　more　completely　safe　than　any　other　kind　of　wealth。　In　the　deserts　of　Arabia　and　Tartary；　in　the　savannahs　of　America；　before　civilization　has　begun；　in　the　pastures　of　the　Campagna　di　Roma；　or　the　Capitanata　de　la　Pouille；　after　it　has　ended；　men　are　contented　with　the　natural　fruits　of　the　ground；　with　grass　for　their　cattle　to　browse；　and　if　those　vast　deserts　yet　retain　any　value；　they　owe　it　less　to　the　slight　labour　by　which　the　proprietor　has　inclosed　them；　than　to　the　labour　by　which　the　herdsman　has　multiplied　the　oxen　and　sheep　which　feed　upon　them。　　　　　When　the　population　of　such　deserts　has　begun　to　increase；　and　an　agricultural　life　to　succeed　that　of　shepherds；　men　still　abstain　from　committing　to　the　ground　any　labour　whose　fruit　they　cannot　gather　till　after　many　years　have　elapsed。　The　husbandman　tills；　to　reap　in　the　following　season；　the　course　of　a　twelvemonth　is　sufficient　to　give　back　all　his　advances。　The　earth　which　he　has　sown；　far　from　gaining　a　durable　value　by　his　labour；　is；　for　a　time；　impoverished　by　the　fruits　it　has　born。　Instead　of　seeking　to　improve　it　by　more　judicious　cultivation；　he　gives　it　back　to　the　desert　for　repose；　and　next　year　tills　another　portion。　The　custom　of　fallowing；　a　remnant　of　this　half　savage　mode　of　agriculture；　continues　to　our　own　time；　in　more　than　three…fourths　of　Europe。　　　　　But　when　population　and　wealth　have　at　last　increased　so　as　to　make　every　kind　of　labour　easy；　and　when　social　order　inspires　security　enough　to　induce　the　husbandman　to　fix　his　labour　in　the　ground；　and　transmit　it　with　the　soil　to　his　descendants；　improvement　altogether　changes　the　appearance　of　the　earth。　Then　are　formed　those　plantations　of　gardens；　orchards；　vineyards；　the　enjoyment　of　which　is　destined　for　a　late　posterity；　then　are　dug　those　canals　for　draining　or　irrigation；　which　diffuse　fertility；　then　arise　upon　the　hills　those　hanging　terraces；　which　characterized　the　agriculture　of　ancient　Canaan。　A　quick　rotation　of　crops　of　a　different　nature　reanimates；　instead　of　exhausting；　the　strength　of　the　soil；　and　a　numerous　population　lives　on　a　space；　which；　according　to　the　primitive　system；　would　hardly　have　supported　a　few　scores　of　sheep。　　　　　The　trade　or　the　manufactures　of　a　country；　are　not　to　be　called　prosperous；　because　a　small　number　of　merchants　have　amassed　immense　fortunes　in　it。　On　the　contrary；　their　extraordinary　profits　almost　always　testify　against　the　general　prosperity　of　the　country。　So　likewise；　in　counties　abandoned　to　pasturage；　the　profits　realized　by　some　rich　proprietors　ought　not　to　be　regarded　as　indicating　a　judicious　system　of　agriculture。　Some　individuals；　it　is　true；　grow　rich；　but　the　nation；　which　the　land　should　maintain；　or　the　food　which　should　support　it；　are　no　where　to　be　found。　It　is　not　even　certain　that　the　net　produce　of　the　land　may　not　diminish；　in　proportion　as　its　agriculture　yields　a　more　abundant　produce；　and　a　greater　number　of　citizens　live　on　its　fruits；　just　as　we　see　the　net　produce　of　money；　or　its　interest；　diminish　in　proportion　as　a　country　becomes　more　commercial；　and　contains　more　capital。　　　　　The　first　proprietors　of　land　were　doubtless　themselves　cultivators；　and　executed　all　kinds　of　field　labour；　with　their　children　and　servants。　To　these；　in　ancient　times；　were　added　slaves；　the　continual　state　of　war；　which　exists　among　semi…barbarous　societies；　having　introduced　slavery　at　the　remotest　era。　The　stronger　found　it　more　convenient　to　procure　workmen　by　the　abuse　of　victory　than　by　bargain。　Yet　so　long　as　the　head　of　each　family　laboured　along　with　his　children　and　slaves；　the　condition　of　the　latter　was　less　wretched；　the　master　felt　himself　to　be　of　the　same　nature　with　his　servant；　he　experienced　the　same　wants　and　the　same　fatigue；　he　desired　the　same　pleasures；　and　knew；　by　experience；　that　he　would　obtain　little　work　from　a　man　whom　he　fed　badly。　Such　was　the　patriarchal　mode　of　cultivation；　that　of　the　golden　days　of　Italy　and　Greece；　such　is　that　of　free　America；　such　appears　to　be　that　of　Africa；　in　its　interior；　and　such；　finally；　but　without　slavery；　and　therefore　with　still　more　domestic　comfort；　is　that　of　Switzerland；　where　the　peasant　proprietor　is　happier　than　in　any　other　country　of　the　world。　　　　　Among　the　states　of　antiquity；　the　farms　under　cultivation　were　small；　and　the　number　of　freemen　labouring　in　the　fields；　always　greatly　surpassed　that　of　slaves。　The　former　had　a　full　enjoyment　of　their　persons　and　the　fruits　of　their　labour；　the　latter；　degraded　rather　than　unhappy；　like　the　ox；　man's　companion；　which　interest　teaches　him　to　spare；　seldom　experienced　suffering；　want　still　more　rarely。　The　head　of　each　family　alone　receiving　the　total　crop；　did　not　distinguish　the　rent　from　the　profit　or　the　wages；　with　the　excess　of　what　he　wanted　for　food；　he　procured　the　produce　of　the　town　in　exchange；　and　this　excess　supported　all　other　classes　of　the　nation。　　　　　But　the　progress　of　wealth；　of　luxury；　and　idleness；　in　all　the　states　of　antiquity；