political economy-第8章

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he　nation。　　　　　But　the　progress　of　wealth；　of　luxury；　and　idleness；　in　all　the　states　of　antiquity；　substituted　the　servile　for　the　patriarchal　mode　of　cultivation。　The　population　lost　much　in　happiness　and　number　by　this　change；　the　earth　gained　little　in　productiveness。　The　Roman　proprietors　extending　their　patrimonies　by　the　confiscated　territories　of　vanquished　states；　the　Greeks　by　wealth　acquired　from　trade；first　abandoned　manual　labour；　and　soon　afterwards；　despised　it。　Fixing　their　residence　in　towns；　they　entrusted　the　management　of　their　estates　to　stewards　and　inspectors　of　slaves；　and　from　that　period；　the　condition　of　most　part　of　the　country　population　became　intolerable。　Labour；　which　once　been　a　point　of　communion　betwixt　the　two　ranks　of　society；　now　became　a　barrier　of　separation；　contempt　and　severity　succeeded　to　affectionate　care；　punishments　were　multiplied　as　they　came　to　be　inflicted　by　inferiors；　and　as　the　death　of　one　or　several　slaves　did　not　lessen　the　steward's　wealth。　Slaves　who　were　ill…fed；　ill…teated；　ill…recompensed；　could　not　fail　to　lose　all　interest　in　their　master's　affairs；　and　almost　all　understanding。　Far　from　attending　to　their　business　with　affection；　they　felt　a　secret　joy　every　time　they　saw　their　oppressors'　wealth　diminished；　or　his　hopes　deceived。　The　study　of　science；　accompanied　with　habits　of　observation；　certainly　advanced　the　theory　of　agriculture：　but　its　practice；　at　the　same　time；　rapidly　declined；　a　fact；　which　all　the　agricultural　writers　of　antiquity　lament。　The　cultivation　of　land　was　entirely　divested　of　all　that　intelligence；　affection；　and　zeal；　which　had　once　hastened　its　success。　The　revenues　were　smaller；　the　expenses　greater；　and　from　that　period；　it　became　an　object　to　save　labour；　more　than　to　augment　its　produce。　Slaves；　after　having　driven　every　free　cultivator　from　the　fields；　were　themselves　rapidly　decreasing　in　number。　During　the　decline　of　the　Roman　empire；　the　population　of　Italy　was　not　less　reduced　than　that　of　the　Agro　Romano　is　in　our　days；　while；　at　the　same　time；　it　had　sunk　into　the　that　degree　of　wretchedness　and　penury。　The　cultivation　of　the　colonies　situated　on　the　Mexican　Gulf　was　founded；　in　like　manner；　on　the　baneful　system　of　slavery。　it　has；　in　like　manner；　consumed　the　population；　debased　the　human　species；　and　deteriorated　the　system　of　agriculture。　The　negro　trade　has　of　course　filled　up　those　voids；　which　the　barbarity　of　planters　annually　produced　in　the　agricultural　population；　and　doubtless；　under　a　system　of　culture；　such　that　the　man　who　labours　is　constantly　reduced　below　the　necessaries　of　life；　and　the　man　who　does　not　labour　keeps　all　for　himself；　the　net　produce　has　always　been　considerable；　but　the　gross　produce；　with　which　alone　the　nation　is　concerned；　has　uniformly　been　inferior　to　what　would　have　arisen　from　any　other　system　of　cultivation；　whilst　the　condition　of　more　than　seven…eighths　of　the　population　has　continued　to　be　miserable。　　　　　The　invasions　of　the　Roman　empire；　by　the　barbarians；　introduced　new　manners；　and；　with　them；　new　systems　of　cultivation。　The　conqueror；　who　had　now　become　proprietor；　being　much　less　allured　by　the　enjoyments　of　luxury；　had　need　of　men　still　more　than　of　wealth。　He　had　ceased　to　dwell　in　towns；　he　had　established　himself　in　the　country；　and　his　castle　formed　a　little　principality；　which　he　wished　to　be　able　to　defend　by　his　own　strength；　and　thus　he　felt　the　necessity　of　acquiring　the　affection　of　such　as　depended　on　him。　A　relaxation　of　the　social　bond；　and　the　independence　of　great　proprietors；　produced　the　same　effects　without　the　limits　of　the　ancient　Roman　empire　as　within。　From　the　epoch　of　its　downfall；　masters　in　every　part　of　Europe　began　to　improve　the　condition　of　their　dependents；　and　this　return　to　humanity　produced　the　natural　effect；　it　rapidly　increased　the　population；　the　wealth；　and　the　happiness　of　rural　labourers。　　　　　Different　expedients　were　resorted　to　for　giving　slaves　and　cultivators　an　interest　in　life；　a　property；　and　an　affection　for　the　place　of　their　nativity；　as　well　as　for　its　lord。　Adopted　by　various　states；　these　expedients　produced　the　most　decisive　influence　on　territorial　wealth　and　population。　In　Italy；　and　part　of　France　and　Spain；　and　probably　in　most　part　of　the　former　Roman　empire；　the　master　shared　the　land　among　his　vassals；　and　agreed　with　them　to　share　the　crops　in　a　raw　state。　This　is　cultivation　for　half　produce。　In　Hungary；　Poland；　Bohemia；　and　all　that　portion　of　Germany　occupied　by　Slavonic　tribes；　the　master　much　more　rarely　enfranchised　his　slaves。　Keeping　them　always　under　an　absolute　dependence；　as　serfs　attached　to　the　soil；　he　gave　them；　however；　one　half　of　his　land；　reserving　the　other　to　himself。　He　wished　to　share；　not　the　fruits　of　their　labour；　but　their　labour　itself；　and　therefore　he　obliged　them　to　work　for　him　two；　three；　and　in　Transylvania；　four　days　of　each　week。　This　is　cultivation　by　corvees。　In　Russia；　and　several　provinces　of　France　and　England；　masters　likewise　distributed　their　lands　among　vassals；　but；　instead　of　wishing　to　participate　either　in　the　lands　or　the　harvests；　they　imposed　a　fixed　capitation。　Such　was　the　abundance　of　uncultivated　land　always　ready　to　be　cleared；　that；　in　the　eyes　of　those　proprietors；　the　only　difference　in　the　condition　of　agricultural　families　was　the　number　of　workmen　included　in　them。　To　capitation　was　always　joined　the　obligation　of　personal　service；　and　the　vassal's　continuance　in　a　servile　state。　Yet；　according　as　the　laws　watched　more　or　less　strictly　over　the　subject's　liberty；　cultivation　upon　this　principle　raised　the　husbandman　to　a　condition　more　or　less　comfortable。　In　Russia；　he　never　escaped　from　servitude　of　the　soil；　in　England；　by　an　easy　transition；　he　arrived　at　the　rank　of　farmer。　　　　　The　system　of　cultivation　by　metayers；　or　cultivation　at　half　produce；　is　perhaps　one　of　the　best　inventions　of　the　middle　ages。　It　contributes；　more　than　any　thing　else；　to　diffuse　happiness　among　the　lower　classes；　to　raise　land　to　a　high　state　of　culture；　and　accumulate　a　great　quantity　of　wealth　upon　it。　It　is　the　most　natural；　the　easiest；　and　most　advantageous　step　for　exalting　the　slave　to　the　condition　of　a　freeman；　for　opening　his　understanding；　teaching　him　economy　and　temperance；　and　placing　in　his　hands　a　property　which　he　will　not　abuse。　According　to　this　system；　the　peasant　is　supposed　to　have　no　capital；　or　scarcely　any；　but　he　receives　the　land　sown　and　fully　stocked；　he　takes　the　charge　of　continuing　every　operation；　of　keeping　his　farm　in　the　same　state　of　culture；　of　delivering　to　his　master　the　half　of　each　crop；　and；　when　the　lease　expires；　of　returning　the　land　under　seed；　the　folds　furnished；　the　vines　propped；　and　every　thing；　in　short；　in　the　same　state　of　completeness　as　it　was　when　he　received　it。　　　　　A　metayer　finds　himself　delivered　from　all　those　cares　which；　in　other　counties；　weigh　heavily　on　the　lower　class　of　the　people。　He　pays　no　direct　tax；　his　master　alone　is　charged　with　it；　he　pays　no　money…rent；　and　therefore　he　is　not　called　to　sell　or　to　buy；　except　for　his　own　domestic　purposes。　The　term；　at　which　the　farmer　has　to　pay　his　taxes　or　his　rent；　does　not　press　the　metayer；　or　constrain　him　to　sell　before　the　season；　at　a　low　price；　the　crop　which　rewards　his　industry。　He　needs　but　little　capital；　because　he　is　not　a　dealer　in　produce；　the　fundamental　advances　have　been　made　once　for　all　by　his　master；　and　as　to　the　daily　labour；　he　performs　it　himself　with　his　family；　for　cultivation　upon　this　principle　brings　constantly　along　with　it　a　great　division　of　the　land；　or　what　is　called　cultivation　on　the　small　scale。　　　　　Under　this　system；　the　peasant　has　an　interest　in　the　property；　as　if　it　were　his　own；　without　the　anxieties　of　wealth；　he　finds　in　his　farm　every　enjoyment；　with　which　nature's　liberality　rewards　the　labour　of　man。　His　industry；　his　economy；　the　development　of　his　understanding；　regularly　increase　his　little　stock。　In　good　years；　he　enjoys　a　kind　of　opulence；　he　is　not　entirely　excluded　from　the　feast　of　nature　which　he　prepares；　his　labour　is　directed　according　to　the　dictates　of　his　own　prudence；　and　the　plants　that　his　children　may　gather　the　fruit。　The　high　state　of　culture　to　be　found　in　the　finest　parts　of　Italy；　above　all　of　Tuscany；　where　the　lands　are　generally　managed　in　this　way。　the　accumulation　of　an　immense　capital　upon　the　soil：　the　invention　of　many　judicious　rotations；　and　industrious　processes；　which　an　intelligent；　observing　spirit　alone　could　have　deduced　from　the　operations　of　nature；　the　collection　of　a　numerous　population；　upon　a　space　very　limited　and　naturally　barren；　shows　plainly　enough　that　this　mode　of　cultivation　is　as　profitable　to　the　land　itself　as　to　the　peasant；　and　that；　if　it　imparts　most　happiness　to　the　lower　class　who　live　by　the　labour　of　their　hands；　it　also　draws　from　the　ground　the　most　abundant　produce；　and　scatters　it　with　most　profusion　among　men。　　　　　But　whenever　a　country　arrives　at　complete　civilization；　whenever　the　property　and　safety　of　individuals　are　sufficiently　protected；　the　usual　population　increases　beyond　what　husbandry　can　employ；　the　extent　of　land　is　limited；　the　population　is　not　so。　A　great　number　of　families　are　brought　up　on　one　farm；　and　sent　away　by　some　accidental　cause；　penury　compels　them　to　offer　their　services　to　some　proprietor；　for　a　recompence　smaller　than　what　is　given　to　such　as　are　actually　employed。　Labourers　outbid　each　other；　and　at　length　go　so　far　as　to　content　themselves　with　the　most　niggardly　subsistence；　with　a　portion　barely　sufficient　in　good　years；　and　which　in　bad　years　leaves　them　a　prey　to　famine。　This　foolish　species　of　competition　has　reduced　the　peasantry　on　the　coast　of　Genoa；　in　the　republic　of　Lucca；　in　several　provinces　of　the　kingdom　of　Naples；　to　content　themselves　with　a　third　of　the　crop；　in　place　of　a　half。　In　a　magnificent　country；　which　nature　has　enriched　with　all　her　gifts；　which　art　has　adorned　with　all　its　luxury；　which　annually　gives　forth　a　most　abundant　harvest　…　the　numerous　class　that　produce　the　fruits　of　the　ground　never　taste　the　corn　which　is　reaped　or　the　wine　which　is　pressed；　by　their　labour；　and　struggle　continually　with　famine。　The　same　misfortune　would　probably　have　happened　to　the　people　of　Tuscany；　if　public　opinion　had　not　guarded　the　farmer；　but　there　no　proprietor　dares　to　impose　terms　unusual　in　the　country；　and　when　he　changes　one　metayer　for　another；　he　changes　no　article　of　the　primitive　contact。　So　soon；　however；　as　public　opinion　becomes　necessary　for　the　maintenance　of　public　prosperity；　it　ought；　in　strict　propriety；　to　be　sanctioned　by　law。　Whenever　vacant　lands　are　no　longer　to　be　found；　proprietors　of　the　soil　come　to　exercise　a　kind　of　monopoly　against　the　rest　of　the　nation；　and　wherever　monopoly　exists；　the　legislature　ought　to　interpose；　lest　they　who　enjoy　may　also　abuse　it。　　　　　Cultivation　by　corvees　was　very　far　from　being　as　happy　an　invention。　No　doubt　it　gave　to　the　peasantry　a　kind　of　property；　an　interest　in　life；　but　it　reduced　them　to　see　their　domestic　economy　disturbed　every　moment；　by　the　vexatious　demands　of　a　landlord　or　his　stewards。　The　peasant　could　not　perform　the　operation