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Unto　This　Last



John　Ruskin



1860











Essays　from　the　Cornhill　Magazine　1860



reprinted　as　Unto　This　Last　in　1862







The　Roots　of　Honour







　　　　Among　the　delusions　which　at　different　periods　have　possessed



themselves　of　the　minds　of　large　masses　of　the　human　race；



perhaps　the　most　curious　　certainly　the　least　creditable　　is



the　modern　soi…disant　science　of　political　economy；　based　on　the



idea　that　an　advantageous　code　of　social　action　may　be　determined



irrespectively　of　the　influence　of　social　affection。



　　　　Of　course；　as　in　the　instances　of　alchemy；　astrology；



witchcraft；　and　other　such　popular　creeds；　political　economy；　has



a　plausible　idea　at　the　root　of　it。　〃The　social　affections；〃　says



the　economist；　〃are　accidental　and　disturbing　elements　in　human



nature；　but　avarice　and　the　desire　of　progress　are　constant



elements。　Let　us　eliminate　the　inconstants；　and；　considering　the



human　being　merely　as　a　covetous　machine；　examine　by　what　laws　of



labour；　purchase；　and　sale；　the　greatest　accumulative　result　in



wealth　is　obtainable。　Those　laws　once　determined；　it　will　be　for



each　individual　afterwards　to　introduce　as　much　of　the　disturbing



affectionate　element　as　he　chooses；　and　to　determine　for　himself



the　result　on　the　new　conditions　supposed。〃



　　　　This　would　be　a　perfectly　logical　and　successful　method　of



analysis；　if　the　accidentals　afterwards　to　be　introduced　were　of



the　same　nature　as　the　powers　first　examined。　Supposing　a　body　in



motion　to　be　influenced　by　constant　and　inconstant　forces；　it　is



usually　the　simplest　way　of　examining　its　course　to　trace　it



first　under　the　persistent　conditions；　and　afterwards　introduce



the　causes　of　variation。　But　the　disturbing　elements　in　the



social　problem　are　not　of　the　same　nature　as　the　constant　ones：



they　alter　the　essence　of　the　creature　under　examination　the



moment　they　are　added；　they　operate；　not　mathematically；　but



chemically；　introducing　conditions　which　render　all　our　previous



knowledge　unavailable。　We　made　learned　experiments　upon　pure



nitrogen；　and　have　convinced　ourselves　that　it　is　a　very



manageable　gas：　but；　behold！　the　thing　which　we　have　practically



to　deal　with　is　its　chloride；　and　this；　the　moment　we　touch　it　on



our　established　principles；　sends　us　and　or　apparatus　through　the



ceiling。



　　　　Observe；　I　neither　impugn　nor　doubt　the　conclusion　of　the



science　if　its　terms　are　accepted。　I　am　simply　uninterested　in



then；　as　I　should　be　in　those　of　a　science　of　gymnastics　which



assumed　that　men　had　no　skeletons。　It　might　be　shown；　on　that



supposition；　that　it　would　be　advantageous　to　roll　the　students



up　into　pellets；　flatten　them　into　cakes；　or　stretch　them　into



cables；　and　that　when　these　results　were　effected；　the



re…insertion　of　the　skeleton　would　be　attended　with　various



inconveniences　to　their　constitution。　The　reasoning　might　be



admirable；　the　conclusions　true；　and　the　science　deficient　only



in　applicability。　Modern　political　economy　stands　on　a　precisely



similar　basis。　Assuming；　not　that　the　human　being　has　no



skeleton；　but　that　it　is　all　skeleton；　it　founds　an　ossifiant



theory　of　progress　on　this　negation　of　a　soul；　and　having　shown



the　utmost　that　may　be　made　of　bones；　and　constructed　a　number　of



interesting　geometrical　figures　with　death's…head　and　humeri；



successfully　proves　the　inconvenience　of　the　reappearance　of　a



soul　among　these　corpuscular　structures。　I　do　not　deny　the　truth



of　this　theory：　I　simply　deny　its　applicability　to　the　present



phase　of　the　world。



　　　　This　inapplicability　has　been　curiously　manifested　during　the



embarrassment　caused　by　the　late　strikes　of　our　workmen。　Here



occurs　one　of　the　simplest　cases；　in　a　pertinent　and　positive



form；　of　the　first　vital　problem　which　political　economy　has　to



deal　with　（the　relation　between　employer　and　employed）；　and；　at　a



severe　crisis；　when　lives　in　multitudes　and　wealth　in　masses　are



at　stake；　the　political　economists　are　helpless　　practically



mute：　no　demonstrable　solution　of　the　difficulty　can　be　given　by



them；　such　as　may　convince　or　calm　the　opposing　parties。



Obstinately　the　masters　take　one　view　of　the　matter。　obstinately



the　operatives　another；　and　no　political　science　can　set　them　at



one。



　　　　It　would　be　strange　if　it　could；　it　being　not　by　〃science〃　of



any　kind　that　men　were　ever　intended　to　be　set　at　one。　Disputant



after　disputant　vainly　strives　to　show　that　the　interests　of　the



masters　are；　or　are　not；　antagonistic　to　those　of　the　men：　none



of　the　pleaders　ever　seeming　to　remember　that　it　does　not



absolutely　or　always　follow　that　the　persons　must　he　antagonistic



because　their　interests　are。　If　there　is　only　a　crust　of　bread　in



the　house；　and　mother　and　children　are　starving；　their　interests



are　not　the　same。　If　the　mother　eats　it；　the　children　want　it；　if



the　children　eat　it；　the　mother　must　go　hungry　to　her　work。　yet



it　does　not　necessarily　follow　that　there　will　be　〃antagonism〃



between　them；　that　they　will　fight　for　the　crust；　and　that　the



mother；　being　strongest；　will　get　it；　and　eat　it。　Neither；　in　any



other　case；　whatever　the　relations　of　the　persons　may　be；　can　it



be　assumed　for　certain　that；　because　their　interests　are　diverse；



they　must　necessarily　regard　each　other　with　hostility；　and　use



violence　or　cunning　to　obtain　the　advantage。



　　　　Even　if　this　were　so；　and　it　were　as　just　as　it　is　convenient



to　consider　men　as　actuated　by　no　other　moral　influences　than



those　which　affect　rats　or　swine；　the　logical　conditions　of　the



question　are　still　indeterminable。　It　can　never　be　shown



generally　either　that　the　interests　of　master　and　labourer　are



alike；　or　that　they　are　opposed；　for；　according　to　circumstances；



they　may　be　either。　It　is；　indeed；　always　the　interest　of　both



that　the　work　should　be　rightly　done；　and　a　just　price　obtained



for　it；　but；　in　the　division　of　profits；　the　gain　of　the　one　may



or　may　not　be　the　loss　of　the　other。　It　is　not　the　master's



interest　to　pay　wages　so　low　as　to　leave　the　men　sickly　and



depressed；　nor　the　workman's　interest　to　be　paid　high　wages　if



the　smallness　of　the　master's　profit　hinders　him　from　enlarging



his　business；　or　conducting　it　in　a　safe　and　liberal　way。　A



stoker　ought　not　to　desire　high　pay　if　the　company　is　too　poor　to



keep　the　engine…wheels　in　repair。



　　　　And　the　varieties　of　circumstances　which　influence　these



reciprocal　interests　are　so　endless；　that　all　endeavour　to　deduce



rules　of　action　from　balance　of　expediency　is　in　vain。　And　it　is



meant　to　be　in　vain。　For　no　human　actions　ever　were　intended　by



the　maker　of　men　to　be　guided　by　balances　of　expediency；　but　by



balances　of　justice。　He　has　therefore　rendered　all　endeavours　to



determine　expediency　futile　for　evermore。　No　man　ever　knew；　or



can　know；　what　will　be　the　ultimate　result　to　himself；　or　to



others；　of　any　given　line　of　conduct。　But　every　man　may　know；　and



most　of　us　do　know；　what　is　a　just　and　unjust　act。　And　all　of　us



may　know　also；　that　the　consequences　of　justice　will　be



ultimately　the　best　possible；　both　to　others　and　ourselves；



though　we　can　neither　say　what　is　best；　or　how　it　is　likely　to



come　to　pass。



　　　　I　have　said　balances　of　justice；　meaning；　in　the　term



justice；　to　include　affection；　　such　affection　as　one　man　owes



to　another。　All　right　relations　between　master　and　operative；　and



all　their　best　interests；　ultimately　depend　on　these。



　　　　We　shall　find　the　best　and　simplest　illustration　of　the



relations　of　master　and　operative　in　the　position　of　domestic



servants。



　　　　We　will　suppose　that　the　master　of　a　household　desires　only



to　get　as　much　work　out　of　his　servants　as　he　can；　at　the　rate　of



wages　he　gives。　He　never　allows　them　to　be　idle；　feeds　them　as



poorly　and　lodges　them　as　ill　as　they　will　endure；　and　in　all



things　pushes　his　requirements　to　the　exact　point　beyond　which　he



cannot　go　without　forcing　the　servant　to　leave　him。　In　doing



this；　there　is　no　violation　on　his　part　of　what　is　commonly



called　〃justice。〃　He　agrees　with　the　domestic　for　his　whole　time



ad　service；　and　takes　them；　　the　limits　of　hardship　in



treatment　being　fixed　by　the　practice　of　other　masters　in　his



neighbourhood；　that　is　to　say；　by　the　current　rate　of　wages　for



domestic　labour。　If　the　servant　can　get　a　better　place；　he　is



free　to　take　one；　and　the　master　can　only　tell　what　is　the　real



market　value　of　his　labour；　by　requiring　as　much　as　he　will　give。



　　　　This　is　the　politico…economical　view　of　the　case；　according



to　the　doctors　of　that　science；　who　assert　that　by　this　procedure



the　greatest　average　of　work　will　be　obtained　from　the　servant；



and　therefore　the　greatest　benefit　to　the　community；　and　through



the　community；　by　reversion；　to　the　servant　himself。



　　　　That；　however；　is　not　so。　It　would　be　so　if　the　servant　were



an　engine　of　which　the　motive　power　was　steam；　magnetism；



gravitation；　or　any　other　agent　of　calculable　force。　But　he



being；　on　the　contrary；　an　engine　whose　motive　power　is　a　Soul；



the　force　of　this　very　peculiar　agent；　as　an　unknown　quantity；



enters　into　all　the　political　economist's　equations；　without　his



knowledge；　and　falsifies　every　one　of　their　results。　The　largest



quantity　of　work　will　not　be　done　by　this　curious　engine　for　pay；



or　under　pressure；　or　by　help　of　any　kind　of　fuel　which　may　be



supplied　by　the　caldron。　It　will　be　done　only　when　the　motive



force；　that　is　to　say；　the　will　or　spirit　of　the　creature；　is



brought　to　its　greatest　strength　by　its　own　proper　fuel：　namely；



by　the　affections。



　　　　It　may　indeed　happen；　and　does　happen　often；　that　if　the



master　is　a　man　of　sense　ad　energy；　a　large　quantity　of　material



work　may　be　done　under　mechanical　pressure；　enforced　by　strong



will　and　guided　by　wise　method；　also　it　may　happen；　and　does



happen　often；　that　if　the　master　is　indolent　and　weak　（however



good…natured）；　a　very　small　quantity　of　work；　and　that　bad；　may



be　produced　by　the　servant's　undirected　strength；　and



contemptuous　gratitude。　But　the　universal　law　of　the　matter　is



that；　assuming　any　given　quantity　of　energy　and　sense　in　master



and　servant；　the　greatest　material　result　obtainable　by　them　will



be；　not　through　antagonism　to　each　other；　but　through　affection



for　each　other；　and　that　if　the　master；　ins