criminal psychology-第104章

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fore　or　above　the　book。　And　yet　again；　if　you　stand　so　that　at　an　angle　of　about　90　degrees　from　the　fixation　point；　you　look　at　a　white　door　in　a　dark　wall；　observing　its　extent　in　indirect　vision；　you　will　find　it　much　higher　than　in　direct　vision。

These　examples　indicate　how　indirect　vision　may　be　corrected　by　later　correct　vision；　but　such　correction　occurs　rarely。　We　see　something　indirectly；　we　find　it　uninteresting；　and　do　not　look　at　it　directly。　When　it　becomes　of　importance　later　on；　perhaps　enters　into　a　criminal　case；　we　think　that　we　have　seen　the　thing　as　it　is；　and　often　swear　that　‘‘a　fly　is　a　big　bird。''

There　are　a　number　of　accidents　which　tend　to　complete　illusion。　Suppose　that　the　vision　of　a　fly；　which　has　been　seen　indirectly　and　taken　for　a　big　bird　happens　to　be　synchronous　with　the　shriek　of　some　bird　of　prey。　I　combine　the　two　and　am　convinced　that　I　have　seen　that　bird　of　prey。　This　may　increase；　so　much　so　that　we　may　have　series　of　sense…illusions。　I　cite　the　example　of　the　decorative　theatrical　artist；　who　can　make　the　most　beautiful　images　with　a　few；　but　very　characteristic　blots。　He　does　it　by　emphazising　what　seems　to　us　characteristic；　e。　g。；　of　a　rose　arbor；　in　such　a　way　that　at　the　distance　and　under　the　conditions　of　illumination　of　the　theatre　we　imagine　we　really　see　a　pretty　rose　arbor。　If　the　scene　painter　could　give　definite　rules　he　would　help　us　lawyers　a　great　deal。　But　he　has　none；　he　proceeds　according　to　experience；　and　is　unable　to　correct　whatever　mistakes　he　has　committed。　If　the　rose　arbor　fails　to　make　the　right　impression；　he　does　not　try　to　improve　ithe　makes　a　new　one。　This　may　lead　to　the　conclusion　that　not　all　people　require　the　same　characteristics　in　order　to　identify　a　thing　as　such；　so　that　if　we　could　set　the　rose　arbor　on　the　stage　by　itself；　only　a　part　of　the　public　would　recognize　it　as　properly　drawn；　the　other　part　would　probably　not　recognize　it　at　all。　But　if；　of　an　evening；　there　is　a　large　number　of　decorations　on　the　stage；　the　collective　public　will　find　the　arbor　to　be　very　pretty。　That　will　be　because　the　human　senses；　under　certain　circumstances；　are　susceptible　to　sympathetic　induction。　In　the　case　of　the　rose　arbor　we　may　assume　that　the　artist　has　typically　represented　the　necessary　characteristics　of　the　arbor　for　one　part　of　the　audience；　for　another　part　those　of　a　castle；　for　another　part　those　of　a　forest；　and　for　a　fourth　those　of　a　background。　But　once　an　individual　finds　a　single　object　to　be　correct；　his　senses　are　already　sympathetically　inductive；　i。　e。；　captivated　for　the　correctness　of　the　whole　collection；　so　that　the　correctness　passes　from　one　object　to　the　total　　number。　Now；　this　psychic　process　is　most　clear　in　those　optical　illusions　which　recently　have　been　much　on　public　exhibition　（the　Battle　of　Gravelotte；　the　Journey　of　the　Austrian　Crown　Prince　in　Egypt；　etc。）。　The　chief　trick　of　these　representations　is　the　presenting　of　real　objects；　like　stones；　wheels；　etc。；　in　the　foreground　in　such　a　way　that　they　fuse　unnoticeably　with　the　painted　picture。　The　sense　of　the　spectator　rests　on　the　plastic　objects；　is　convinced　of　their　materiality　and　transfers　the　idea　of　this　plasticity　to　the　merely　pictured。　Thus　the　whole　image　appears　as　tri…dimensional。

The　decorations　of　great　parks　at　the　beginning　of　the　last　century　indicate　that　illumination　and　excited　imagination　are　not　alone　in　causing　such　illusions。　Weber　tells　ecstatically　of　an　alley　in　Schwetzing　at　the　end　of　which　there　was　a　highly　illuminated　concave　wall；　painted　with　a　landscape　of　mountains　and　water…falls。　Everybody　took　the　deception　for　a　reality　because　the　eye　was　captivated　and　properly　inducted。　The　artist's　procedure　must　have　been　psychologically　correct　and　must　have　counted　upon　the　weakness　of　our　observation　and　intellection。　Exner　points　to　the　simple　circumstance　that　we　do　not　want　to　see　that　things　under　certain　conditions　must　terminate。　If　we　draw　a　straight　line　and　cover　an　end　with　a　piece　of　paper；　every　one　wonders　that　the　line　is　not　longer　when　the　paper　is　removed。

I　know　of　no　case　in　criminal　procedure　where　illusions　of　this　kind　might　be　of　importance；　but　it　is　conceivable　that　such　illusions　enter　in　numberless　instances。　This　is　especially　susceptible　of　observation　when　we　first　see　some　region　or　object　hastily　and　then　observe　it　more　accurately。　We　are　astonished　how　fundamentally　false　our　first　conception　was。　Part　of　this　falseness　may　be　adduced　to　faults　of　memory；　but　these　play　little　or　no　part　if　the　time　is　short　and　if　we　are　able　to　recall　that　the　false　conception　appeared　just　as　soon　as　we　observed　the　situation　in　question。　The　essential　reason　for　false　conception　is　to　be　found　only　in　the　fact　that　our　first　hasty　view　was　incorrectly　inducted；　and　hence；　led　to　illusions　like　those　of　the　theatre。　Thus；　it　is　possible　to　take　a　board　fence　covered　at　points　with　green　moss；　for　a　moss…covered　rock；　and　then　to　be　led　by　this　to　see　a　steep　cliff。　Certain　shadows　may　so　magnify　the　size　of　the　small　window　of　an　inn　that　we　may　take　it　to　be　as　large　as　that　of　a　sitting　room。　And　if　we　have　seen　just　one　window　we　think　all　are　of　the　same　form　and　are　convinced　that　the　inn　is　a　mansion。　Or　again；　we　see；　half…covered；　through　the　woods；　a　distant　pool；　and　in　memory　we　then　see　the　possibly；　　but　not　necessarily；　present　river。　Or　perhaps　we　see　a　church　spire；　and　possibly　near　it　the　roof　of　a　house　rises　above　the　trees；　then　we　are　inducted　into　having　seen　a　village；　although　there　really　are　visible　only　the　church　and　the　house。

These　illusions　again；　I　must　repeat；　are　of　no　importance　if　they　are　at　all　doubted；　for　then　the　truth　is　ascertained。　When；　however；　they　are　not　doubted　and　are　sworn　to；　they　cause　the　greatest　confusion　in　trials。　A　bar…room　quarrel；　a　swung　cane；　and　a　red　handkerchief　on　the　head；　are　enough　to　make　people　testify　to　having　seen　a　great　brawl　with　bloody　heads。　A　gnawing　rat；　a　window　accidentally　left　open　through　the　night；　and　some　misplaced；　not　instantaneously　discovered　object；　are　the　ingredients　of　a　burglary。　A　man　who　sees　a　rather　quick　train；　hears　a　shrill　blowing　of　the　whistle；　and　sees　a　great　cloud；　may　think　himself　the　witness　of　a　wreck。　All　these　phenomena；　moreover；　reveal　us　things　as　we　have　been　in　the　habit　of　seeing　them。　I　repeat；　here　also；　that　the　photographic　apparatus；　in　so　far　as　it　does　not　possess　a　refracting　lens；　shows　things　much　more　truly　than　our　eye；　which　is　always　corrected　by　our　memory。　If　I　permit　a　man　sitting　on　a　chair　to　be　photographed；　front　view；　with　his　legs　crossed　and　stretched　far　out；　the　result　is　a　ludicrous　picture　because　the　boots　seem　immensely　larger　than　the　head　of　the　subject。　But　the　photograph　is　not　at　fault；　for　if　the　subject　is　kept　in　the　same　position　and　then　the　apparent　size　of　head　and　boot　are　measured；　we　get　accurately　the　same　relation　as　on　the　photograph。　We　know　by　experience　how　big　a　head　is。　And　hence；　we　ordinarily　see　all　relations　of　size　in　proper　proportion。　But　on　the　photograph　we　can　not　apply　this　‘‘natural''　standard　because　it　is　not　given　in　nature；　and　we　blame　the　camera。

If；　in　a　criminal　case；　we　are　dealing　with　a　description　of　size；　and　it　is　given　as　it　is　known　from　experience；　not　as　it　really　appears；　then　if　experience　has　deceived　us；　our　testimony　is　also　wrong；　although　we　pretend　to　have　testified　on　the　basis　of　direct　sense…　perception。

The　matter　of　after…images；　probably　because　of　their　short　duration；　is　of　no　criminalistic　importance。　I　did　once　believe　that　they　might　be　of　considerable　influence　on　the　perception　of　witnesses；　but　I　have　not　succeeded　in　discovering　a　single　example　in　which　this　influence　is　perceptible。

On　the　other　hand；　the　phenomenon　of　irradiation；　the　appearance　of　dark　bodies　as　covered　with　rays　of　light　by　adjacent　luminosities；　　is　of　importance。　This　phenomenon　is　well…known；　as　are　Helmholtz's　and　Plateau's　explanations　of　it。　But　it　is　not　sufficiently　applied。　One　needs　only　to　set　a　white　square　upon　the　blackest　possible　ground　and　at　the　same　time　a　similar　black　square　of　equal　size　on　a　white　ground；　and　then　to　place　them　under　a　high　light；　to　perceive　how　much　larger　the　white　square　appears　to　be。　That　such　phenomena　often　occur　in　nature　need　not　be　expounded。　Whenever　we　are　dealing　with　questions　of　size　it　is　indubitably　necessary　to　consider　the　color　of　the　object　and　its　environment　with　respect　to　its　background　and　to　the　resulting　irradiation。


Section　100。　（3）　_Auditory　Illusions_。

From　the　point　of　view　of　the　criminalist；　auditory　illusions　are　hardly　less　significant　than　visual　illusions；　the　more　so；　as　incorrect　hearing　is　much　more　frequent　than　incorrect　seeing。　This　is　due　to　the　greater　similarity　of　tones　to　each　other；　and　this　similarity　is　due　to　the　fact　that　sound　has　only　one　dimension；　while　vision　involves　not　only　three　but　also　color。　Of　course；　between　the　booming　of　cannons　and　the　rustling　of　wings　there　are　more　differences　than　one；　but　the　most　various　phenomena　of　tones　may　be　said　to　vary　only　in　degree。　For　purposes　of　comparison　moreover；　we　can　make　use　only　of　a　class　of　auditory　images　on　the　same　plane；　e。　g。；　human　voices；　etc。　Real　acoustic　illusions　are　closely　connected　with　auditory　misapprehension　and　a　distinction　between　these　two　can　not　be　rigorously　drawn。　A　misapprehension　may；　as　a　rule；　be　indicated　by　almost　any　external　condition；　like　the　relations　of　pitch；　echo；　repetition；　false　coincidence　of　waves　of　sound；　etc。　Under　such　circumstances　there　may　arise　real　illusions。

The　study　of　auditory　illusions　is　rendered　especially　difficult　by　the　rarity　of　their　repetition；　which　makes　it　impossible　reliably　to　exclude　accidents　and　mistakes　in　observation。　Only　two　phenomena　are　susceptible　of　accurate　and　sufficient　study。　For　three　summers　a　man　used　to　ride　through　the　long　street　in　which　I　live。　The　man　used　to　sell　ice　and　would　announce　himself　by　crying　out；　‘‘Frozen；''　with　the　accent　on　the　Fro。　This　word　was　distinctly　audible；　but　if　the　man　came　to　a　definite　place　in　the　street；　there　were　also　audible　the　words　‘‘Oh；　my。''　If　he　rode　on　further　the　expression　became　confused　and　gradually　turned　into　the　correct；　‘‘Frozen。''　I　observed　this　daily；　got　a　number　of　others　to　do　so；　without　telling　them　of　the　illusion；　but　each　heard　　the　same　thing　in　spite　of　the　distinct　difference　between　‘‘frozen；''　and　‘‘oh；　my。''

I　made　a　similar　observation　at　a　bicycle　school。　As　is　known；　beginners　are　able　frequently　to　ride　by　themselves　but　need　help　in　mounting　and　dismounting　their　machines。　To　do　so　they　call　a　teacher　by　crying　out：　‘‘Herr　Maier。''　At　a　certain　place　this　sound　would　seem　distinctly　to　be　‘‘mamma。''　I　was　at　first　much　surprised　to　hear　people　of　advanced　age　cry　cheerfully；　‘‘mamma。''　Later　I　discovered　what　the　word　really　was　and　acquaintances　whose　attention　I　called　to　the　matter　confirmed　my　observation。　Such　things　are　not　indifferent；　they　show　that　really　very　different　sounds　may　be　mistaken　for　one　another；　that　the　test　of　misunderstand