criminal psychology-第106章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


ds；　travellers；　etc。；　do　not　hear　the　pounding　of　their　various　habitual　environmental　noises；　but　they　perceive　the　slightest　call；　and　everybody　observes　the　considerable　murmur　of　the　world；　the　sum　of　all　distant　noises；　only　in　the　silence　of　the　night　that　misses　it。

Illusions　of　direction　of　sound　are　very　common。　It　is　said　that　even　animals　are　subject　to　them；　and　everybody　knows　how　few　human　beings　can　distinguish　the　source　and　direction　of　street　music；　a　rolling　wagon；　or　a　ringing　bell。　Even　when　long　practice　enables　one　to　determine　direction　with　correctness；　an　accidental　event；　perhaps　the　weather；　especial　sounds；　a　different　grouping　of　individuals　on　the　street；　may　result　in　serious　mistakes。　I　tried　to　learn　to　judge　from　my　office…desk　whether　the　ring　of　the　horse…　car　came　from　above　or　below。　I　succeeded　so　well　that　I　could　not　understand　how　it　was　difficult　not　to　learn　the　difference；　and　yet　I　failed　many　a　time　altogether　in　judgment。　The　reason　for　it　I　do　not　know。

All　these　enumerated　circumstances　must　show　how　very　uncertain　all　acoustic　perceptions　are；　and　how　little　they　may　be　trusted　if　they　are　not　carefully　tested　under　similar　conditions；　and　ifwhat　is　most　importantthey　are　not　isolated。　We　are　here　led　back


＇1＇　Max　Meyer：　Zur　Theorie　der　Geruschempfindungen。　Leipzig　1902。

　to　the　old　principle　that　every　observation　is　not　proof　but　means　of　proof；　and　that　it　may　be　trusted　only　when　it　is　confirmed　by　many　parallel　actions　which　are　really　consistent。　That　even　after　that　mistakes　are　possible；　is　true；　but　‘‘after　that''　is　when　we　have　done　all　that　lies　within　human　power。


Section　101。　（4）　_Illusions　of　Touch_。

The　high　standing　of　the　sense　of　touch　which　make　it　in　certain　directions　even　the　organ　of　control　of　the　sense　of　sight；　is　well　known；　and　Condillac's　historic　attempt　to　derive　all　the　senses　from　this　one　is　still　plausible。　If　what　is　seen　is　to　be　seen　accurately　there　is　automatic　resort　to　the　confirmatory　aid　of　the　sense　of　touch；　which　apprehends　what　the　eye　has　missed。　Hence　we　find　many　people　touching　things；　whose　vision　is　not　altogether　reliable　i。　e。；　people　of　considerable　age；　children　unpracticed　in　seeing；　an　uneducated　people　who　have　never　learned　to　see　quickly　and　comprehensively。　Moreover；　certain　things　can　be　determined　only　by　touching；　i。　e。；　the　fineness　of　papers；　cloth；　etc。；　the　sharpness　or　pointedness　of　instruments；　or　the　rawness　of　objects。　Even　when　we　pat　a　dog　kindly　we　do　so　partly　because　we　want　to　see　whether　his　skin　is　as　smooth　and　fine　as　the　eye　sees　it；　moreover；　we　want　to　test　the　visual　impression　by　that　of　touch。

But　important　and　reliable　as　the　sense　of　touch　is；　it　is　nevertheless　not　to　be　trusted　when　it　is　the　sole　instrument　of　perception。　We　must　never　depend　on　the　testimony　of　a　witness　based　entirely　on　perceptions　by　touch；　and　the　statements　of　a　wounded　person　concerning　the　time；　manner；　etc。；　of　his　wound　are　unreliable　unless　he　has　also　seen　what　he　has　felt。　We　know　that　most　knife　and　bullet　wounds；　i。　e。；　the　most　dangerous　ones；　are　felt；　in　the　first　instance；　as　not　very　powerful　blows。　Blows　on　the　extremities　are　not　felt　as　such；　but　rather　as　pain；　and　blows　on　the　head　are　regularly　estimated　in　terms　of　pain；　and　falsely　with　regard　to　their　strength。　If　they　were　powerful　enough　to　cause　unconsciousness　they　are　said　to　have　been　very　massive；　but　if　they　have　not　had　that　effect；　they　will　be　described　by　the　most　honest　of　witnesses　as　much　more　powerful　than　they　actually　were。　Concerning　the　location　of　a　wound　in　the　back；　in　the　side；　even　in　the　upper　arm；　the　wounded　person　can　give　only　general　indications；　and　if　he　correctly　indicates　the　seat　of　the　wound；　he　has　learned　it　later　but　did　not　know　it　when　it　occurred。　According　to　Helmholtz；　　practically　all　abdominal　sensations　are　attributed　to　the　anterior　abdominal　wall。　Now　such　matters　become　of　importance　when　an　individual　has　suffered　several　wounds　in　a　brawl　or　an　assault　and　wants　to　say　certainly　that　he　got　wound　A　when　X　appeared；　wound　B　when　Y　struck　at　him；　etc。　These　assertions　are　almost　all　false　because　the　victim　is　likely　to　identify　the　pain　of　the　moment　of　receiving　the　wound　with　its　later　painfulness。　If；　for　example；　an　individual　has　received　a　rather　long　but　shallow　knife　wound　and　a　deep　stab　in　the　back；　the　first　will　cause　him　very　considerable　burning　sensation；　the　latter　only　the　feeling　of　a　heavy　blow。　Later　on；　at　the　examination；　the　cut　has　healed　and　is　no　longer　painful；　the　dangerous　stab　which　may　have　reached　the　lung；　causes　pain　and　great　difficulty　in　breathing；　so　that　the　wounded　man　assigns　the　incidence　of　the　stab　to　the　painful　sensation　of　the　cut；　and　conversely。

Various　perceptions　of　victims　on　receiving　a　wound　are　remarkable；　and　I　have　persuaded　a　police　surgeon　of　considerable　learning　and　originality　to　collect　and　interpret　his　great　mass　of　material。　It　is　best　done　by　means　of　tabulation；　accurate　description　of　wounds　according　to　their　place；　size；　form；　and　significance；　the　statement　of　the　victim　concerning　his　feeling　at　the　moment　of　receiving　the　wound；　the　consequences　of　healing；　and　at　the　end　explanatory　observations　concerning　the　reasons　for　true　or　incorrect　sensations　of　the　victim。　As　this　work　is　to　have　only　psychological　value　it　is　indifferent　whether　the　victim　is　veracious　or　not。　What　we　want　to　know　is　what　people　say　about　their　perception。　The　true　and　the　false　will　distinguish　themselves　automatically；　the　material　being　so　rich；　and　the　object　will　be　to　compare　true　subjective　feelings　with　true　subjective　deeds。　Perhaps　it　may　even　be　possible　to　draw　generalizations　and　to　abstract　certain　rules。

There　are　many　examples　of　the　fact　that　uncontrolled　touch　leads　to　false　perceptions。　Modern　psychophysics　has　pointed　to　a　large　group　of　false　perceptions　due　to　illusions　of　pressure；　stabs；　or　other　contact　with　the　skin。　The　best　known；　and　criminalistically　most　important　experiments；　are　those　with　open　compasses。　Pressed　on　the　less　sensitive　parts　of　the　body；　the　back；　the　thigh；　etc。；　they　are　always　felt　as　one；　although　they　are　quite　far　apart。　The　experiments　of　Flournoy；　again；　show　how　difficult　it　is　to　judge　weights　which　are　not　helped　by　the　eye's　appreciation　of　their　form　and　appearance。　Ten　objects　of　various　forms　were　judged　by　fifty　　people　for　their　weight；　only　one　discovered　that　they　all　had　the　same　weight。

Similarly；　mere　touch　can　not　give　us　proper　control　over　the　organs　of　the　body。　Sully　says　that　in　bed　we　may　voluntarily　imagine　that　a　leg　has　a　position　quite　different　from　that　it　really　has。　Let　me　cite　some　similar　examples　from　my　‘‘Manual　for　Investigating　Judges。''　If　we　take　a　pea　between　the　thumb　and　the　index　finger；　we　feel　the　pea　simply；　although　its　tactile　image　comes　to　us　through　two　fingers；　i。　e。；　double。　If　now　we　cross　the　third　finger　over　the　fourth　and　hold　the　pea　between　the　ends　of　these　two　fingers；　we　feel　it　to　be　double　because　the　fingers　are　not　in　their　customary　positions　and　hence　give　double　results。　From　one　point　of　view　this　double　feeling　is　correct；　but　when　we　touch　the　pea　naturally；　experience　helps　us　to　feel　only　one　pea。　Another　example　consists　in　crossing　the　hands　and　turning　them　inward　and　upward；　so　that　the　left　fingers　turn　to　the　left　and　the　right　fingers　to　the　right。　Here　the　localization　of　the　fingers　is　totally　lost；　and　if　a　second　person　points　to　one　of　the　fingers　without　touching　it；　asking　you　to　lift　it；　you　regularly　lift　the　analogous　finger　of　the　other　hand。　This　shows　that　the　tactile　sense　is　not　in　a　very　high　stage　of　development；　since　it　needs；　when　unhelped　by　long　experience；　the　assistance　of　the　sense　of　sight。　Perceptions　through　touch　alone；　therefore；　are　of　small　importance；　inferences　are　made　on　the　basis　of　few　and　more　coarse　characteristic　impressions。

This　is　shown　by　a　youthful　game　we　used　to　play。　It　consisted　of　stretching　certain　harmless　things　under　the　tablea　soft　piece　of　dough；　a　peeled；　damp　potato　stuck　on　a　bit　of　wood；　a　wet　glove　filled　with　sand；　the　spirally　cut　rind　of　a　beet；　etc。　Whoever　got　one　of　these　objects　without　seeing　it　thought　he　was　holding　some　disgusting　thing　and　threw　it　away。　His　sense　of　touch　could　present　only　the　dampness；　the　coldness；　and　the　motion；　i。　e。；　the　coarsest　traits　of　reptilian　life；　and　the　imagination　built　these　up　into　a　reptile　and　caused　the　consequent　action。　Foolish　as　this　game　seems；　it　is　criminalistically　instructive。　It　indicates　what　unbelievable　illusions　the　sense　of　touch　is　capable　of　causing。　To　this　inadequacy　of　the　tactile　imagination　may　be　added　a　sort　of　transferability　of　certain　touch　sensations。　For　example；　if　ants　are　busy　near　my　seat　I　immediately　feel　that　ants　are　running　about　under　my　clothes；　and　if　I　see　a　wound　or　hear　it　described；　I　often　feel　pain　in　the　analogous　place　on　my　own　body。　That　this　may　lead　to　considerable　illusion　in　excitable　witnesses　is　obvious。　

Finally；　this　dependence　of　the　sense　of　touch　may　be　supplemented　by　the　fact　that　it　is　counted　only　relatively；　and　its　value　varies　with　the　individual。　We　find　the　cellar　warm　in　winter　and　cold　in　summer；　because　we　only　feel　the　difference　with　the　outer　air；　and　when　we　put　one　hand　in　hot；　and　the　other　in　cold　water；　and　then　put　both　in　tepid　water　one　finds　the　tepid　water　cold；　the　other　warm。　The　record　of　tactile　sensations　is　frequent　in　our　protocols　and　requires　constant　consideration　of　the　sense's　unreliability。

Diseased　conditions　are　of　course　to　be　referred　to　the　physician。　I　need　only　mention　that　slight　poisonings　by　means　of　chloroform；　morphine；　atropine；　daturine；　decrease；　and　that　strychnine　increases　the　sensitivity　of　the　touch　organ。


Section　102。　（5）　_Illusions　of　the　Sense　of　Taste_。

Illusions　of　taste　are　of　importance　for　us　only　in　cases　of　poisoning　in　which　we　want　the　assistance　of　the　victim；　or　desire　to　taste　the　poison　in　question　in　order　to　determine　its　nature。　That　taste　and　odor　are　particularly　difficult　to　get　any　unanimity　about　is　an　old　story；　and　it　follows　that　it　is　still　more　difficult　clearly　to　understand　possible　illusions　of　these　senses。　That　disease　can　cause　mistaken　gustatory　impressions　is　well　known。　But　precedent　poisoning　may　also　create　illusions。　Thus；　observation　shows　that　poisoning　by　rose…santonin　（that　well…known　worm　remedy　to　which　children　are　so　abnormally　sensitive）　causes　a　long…enduring；　bitter　taste；　sub…cutaneous　morphine　poisoning　causes　illusory　bitter　and　sour　tastes。　Intermittent　fevers　tend　to　cause；　when　there　is　no　attack　and　the　patient　feels　comparatively　well；　a　large　number　of　metallic；　particularly　coppery　tastes。　If　this　is　true　it　may　lead　to　unjustified　suspicions　of　poisoning；　inasmuch　as　the　phenomena　of　intermittent　fever　are　so　various　that　they　can　not　all　be　identified。

Imagination　makes　considerable　difference　here。　Taine　tells　somewhere　of　a　novelist；　who　so　graphically　described　the　poisoning　of　his　heroine　that　he　felt　the　taste　of　arsenic　and　got　indiges