criminal psychology-第107章

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Imagination　makes　considerable　difference　here。　Taine　tells　somewhere　of　a　novelist；　who　so　graphically　described　the　poisoning　of　his　heroine　that　he　felt　the　taste　of　arsenic　and　got　indigestion。　This　may　be　possible；　for　perhaps　everybody　has　already　learned　the　great　influence　of　the　false　idea　of　the　nature　of　a　food。　If　some　salt　meat　is　taken　to　be　a　sweet　pastry；　the　taste　becomes　disgusting　because　the　imaginary　and　the　actual　tastes　seem　to　be　mixed。　The　eye　has　especial　influence；　and　the　story　cited　and　denied　a　hundred　times；　that　in　the　dark；　red　wine　and　white　wine；　chicken　and　goose；　　can　not　be　distinguished；　that　the　going　out　of　a　cigar　is　not　noted；　etc。；　is　true。　With　your　eyes　closed　it　may　be　possible　to　eat　an　onion　instead　of　an　apple。

Prior　tastes　may　cause　significant　gustatory　illusions。　Hence；　when　assertions　are　made　about　tastes；　it　is　always　necessary　to　inquire　at　the　outset　what　had　been　eaten　or　drunk　before。　Experienced　housewives　take　this　fact　into　consideration　in　setting　their　tables　and　arranging　their　wines。　The　values　of　the　wines　are　considerably　raised　by　complete　illusions　of　taste。　All　in　all；　it　must　not　be　forgotten　that　the　reliability　of　the　sense　of　taste　can　not　be　estimated　too　low。　The　illusions　are　greatest　especially　when　a　thing　has　been　tasted　with　a　preconceived　notion　of　its　taste。


Section　103。　（6）　_The　Illusions　of　the　Olfactory　Sense_。

Olfactory　illusions　are　very　rare　in　healthy　people　and　are　hence　of　small　importance。　They　are　frequent　among　the　mentally　diseased；　are　connected　in　most　cases　with　sexual　conditions　and　then　are　so　vivid　that　the　judge　can　hardly　doubt　the　need　of　calling　in　the　physician。　Certain　poisons　tend　to　debauch　the　olfactory　sense。　Strychnine；　e。　g。；　tends　to　make　it　finer；　morphine　duller。　People　with　weak　lungs　try；　in　most　cases；　to　set　their　difficulty　of　breathing　outside　themselves　and　believe　that　they　are　inhaling　poisoned　air；　coal…gas；　etc。　If　one　considers　in　this　connection　the　suspiciousness　which　many　people　suffering　from　lung　trouble　often　exhibit；　we　may　explain　many　groundless　accusations　of　attempted　murder　by　stifling　with　poisonous　or　unbreathable　gas。　If　this　typical　illusion　is　unknown　to　the　judge　he　may　find　no　reason　for　calling　in　the　physician　and　theninjustice。

The　largest　number　of　olfactory　illusions　are　due　to　imagination。　Carpenter's　frequently　cited　case　of　the　officials　who　smelled　a　corpse　while　a　coffin　was　being　dug　up；　until　finally　the　coffin　was　found　to　be　empty；　has　many　fellows。　I　once　was　making　an　examination　of　a　case　of　arson；　and　on　approaching　the　village　noted　a　characteristic　odor　which　is　spread　by　burned　animals　or　men。　When　we　learned：　that　the　consumed　farm　lay　still　an　hour's　ride　from　the　village；　the　odor　immediately　disappeared。　Again；　on　returning　home；　I　thought　I　heard　the　voice　of　a　visitor　and　immediately　smelled　her　characteristic　perfume；　but　she　had　not　been　there　that　day。

Such　illusions　are　to　be　explained　by　the　fact　that　many　odors　are　in　the　air；　that　they　are　not　very　powerfully　differentiated　and　　may　hence　be　turned　by　means　of　the　imagination　into　that　one　which　is　likely　to　be　most　obvious。

The　stories　told　of　hyper…sensitives　who　think　they　are　able　to　smell　the　pole　of　a　magnet　or　the　chemicals　melted　into　a　glass；　belong　to　this　class。　That　they　do　so　in　good　faith　may　be　assumed；　but　to　smell　through　melted　glass　is　impossible。　Hence　it　must　be　believed　that　such　people　have　really　smelled　something　somewhere　and　have　given　this　odor　this　or　that　particular　location。　Something　like　this　occurs　when　an　odor；　otherwise　found　pleasant；　suddenly　becomes　disgusting　and　unbearable　when　its　source　is　unknown。　However　gladly　a　man　may　eat　sardines　in　oil　he　is　likely　to　turn　aside　when　his　eyes　are　closed　and　an　open　can　of　sardines　is　held　under　his　nose。　Many　delicate　forms　of　cheese　emit　disgusting　odors　so　long　as　it　is　not　known　that　cheese　is　the　source。　The　odor　that　issues　from　the　hands　after　crabs　have　been　eaten　is　unbearable；　if；　however；　one　bears　in　mind　that　the　odor　is　the　odor　of　crabs；　it　becomes　not　at　all　so　unpleasant。

Association　has　much　influence。　For　a　long　time　I　disliked　to　go　to　a　market　where　flowers；　bouquets；　wreaths；　etc。；　were　kept　because　I　smelled　dead　human　bodies。　Finally；　I　discovered　that　the　odor　was　due　to　the　fact　that　I　knew　most　of　these　flowers　to　be　such　as　are　laid　on　coffinsare　smelled　during　interment。　Again；　many　people　find　perfumes　good　or　bad　as　they　like　or　dislike　the　person　who　makes　use　of　them；　and　the　judgment　concerning　the　pleasantness　or　unpleasantness　of　an　odor　is　mainly　dependent　upon　the　pleasantness　or　unpleasantness　of　associative　memories。　When　my　son；　who　is　naturally　a　vegetarian　and　who　could　never　be　moved　to　eat　meat；　became　a　doctor；　I　thought　that　he　could　never　be　brought　to　endure　the　odor　of　the　dissecting　room。　It　did　not　disturb　him　in　the　least；　however；　and　he　explained　it　by　saying：　‘‘I　do　not　eat　what　smells　like　that；　and　I　can　not　conceive　how　you　can　eat　anything　from　the　butcher　shops　where　the　odor　is　exactly　like　that　of　the　dissecting　room。''　What　odor　is　called　good　or　bad；　ecstatic　or　disgusting；　is　purely　a　subjective　matter　and　never　to　be　the　basis　of　a　universal　judgment。　Statements　by　witnesses　concerning　perceptions　of　odor　are　valueless　unless　otherwise　confirmed。


Section　104。　（b）　Hallucinations　and　Illusions。

The　limits　between　illusions　of　sense　and　hallucinations　and　illusions　proper　can　in　no　sense　be　definitely　determined　inasmuch　　as　any　phenomena　of　the　one　may　be　applied　to　the　other；　and　vice　versa。＇1＇　Most　safely　it　may　be　held　that　the　cause　of　illusions　of　sense　lies　in　the　nature　of　sense…organs；　while　the　hallucinations　and　illusions　are　due　to　the　activity　of　the　brain。　The　latter　are　much　more　likely　to　fall　within　the　scope　of　the　physician　than　sense…　illusions；　but　at　the　same　time　many　of　them　have　to　be　determined　upon　by　the　lawyer；　inasmuch　as　they　really　occur　to　normal　people　or　to　such　whose　disease　is　just　beginning　so　that　the　physician　can　not　yet　reach　it。　Nevertheless；　whenever　the　lawyer　finds　himself　face　to　face　with　a　supposed　illusion　or　hallucination　he　must　absolutely　call　in　the　physician。　For；　as　rarely　as　an　ordinary　illusion　of　sense　is　explicable　by　the　rules　of　logic　or　psychology；　or　even　by　means　of　other　knowledge　or　experience　at　the　command　of　any　educated　man；　so；　frequently；　do　processes　occur　in　cases　of　hallucination　and　illusion　which　require；　at　the　very　least；　the　physiological　knowledge　of　the　physician。　Our　activity　must　hence　be　limited　to　the　perception　of　the　presence　of　hallucination　or　illusion；　the　rest　is　matter　for　the　psychiatrist。　Small　as　our　concern　is；　it　is　important　and　difficult；　for　on　the　one　hand　we　must　not　appeal　to　the　physician　about　every　stupid　fancy　or　every　lie　a　prisoner　utters；　and　on　the　other　hand　we　assume　a　heavy　responsibility　if　we　interpret　a　real　hallucination　or　illusion　as　a　true　and　real　observation。　To　acquire　knowledge　of　the　nature　of　these　things；　therefore；　can　not　be　rigorously　enough　recommended。

Hallucination　and　illusion　have　been　distinguished　by　the　fact　that　hallucination　implies　no　external　object　whatever；　while　in　illusion　objects　are　mistaken　and　misinterpreted。　When　one　thing　is　taken　for　another；　e。　g。；　an　oven　for　a　man；　the　rustle　of　the　wind　for　a　human　song；　we　have　illusion。　When　no　objective　existence　is　perceived；　e。　g。；　when　a　man　is　seen　to　enter；　a　voice　is　heard；　a　touch　is　felt；　although　nothing　whatever　has　happened；　we　have　hallucination。　Illusion　is　partial；　hallucination　complete；　supplementation　of　an　external　object。　There　is　not　a　correct　and　definite　difference　between　illusion　and　hallucination　inasmuch　as　what　is　present　may　be　so　remotely　connected　with　what　is　perceived　that　it　is　no　more　than　a　stimulus；　and　thus　illusion　may　be　turned　into　real　hallucination。　One　authority　calls　illusion　the　conception　of　an　actually　present　external　event　which　is　perceived　by　the　peripheral　organs　in　the　form　of　an　idea　that　does　not　coincide　with　the


＇1＇　C。　Wernicke　ber　Halluzinationen；　Ratlosigkeit；　Desorientierung　etc。　Monatschrift　f。　Psychiatrie　u。　Neurologie；　IX；　1　（1901）。

　event。　The　mistake　does　not　lie　in　the　defective　activity　of　the　senses　so　much　as　in　the　fact　that　an　apperceptive　idea　is　substituted　for　the　perceptive　view。　In　hallucination　every　external　event　is　absent；　and　hence；　what　is　seen　is　due　to　a　stimulation　of　the　periphery。　Some　authorities　believe　hallucination　to　be　caused　by　cramp　of　the　sensory　nerve。　Others　find　illusions　to　be　an　externally　stimulated　sense…perception　not　corresponding　to　the　stimulus；　and　still　others　believe　it　to　be　essentially　normal。　Most　human　beings　are　from　time　to　time　subject　to　illusions；　indeed；　nobody　is　always　sober　and　intelligent　in　all　his　perceptions　and　convictions。　The　luminous　center　of　our　intelligent　perceptions　is　wrapped　in　a　cloudy　half…shadow　of　illusion。

Sully＇1＇　aims　to　distinguish　the　essential　nature　of　illusion　from　that　characterized　by　ordinary　language。　Illusion；　according　to　him；　is　often　used　to　denote　mistakes　which　do　not　imply　untrue　perceptions。　We　say　a　man　has　an　illusion　who　thinks　too　much　of　himself；　or　when　he　tells　stories　otherwise　than　as　they　happen　because　of　a　weakness　of　memory。　Illusion　is　every　form　of　mistake　which　substitutes　any　direct　self…evident　or　intuitive　knowledge；　whether　as　sense…perception　or　as　any　other　form。

Nowadays　the　cause　of　hallucination　and　illusion　is　sought　in　the　over…excitement　of　the　cerebro…spinal　system。　As　this　stimulation　may　be　very　various　in　its　intensity　and　significance；　from　the　momentary　rush　of　blood　to　complete　lunacy；　so　hallucinations　and　illusions　may　be　insignificant　or　signs　of　very　serious　mental　disturbances。　When　we　seek　the　form　of　these　phenomena；　we　find　that　all　those　psychical　events　belong　to　it　which　have　not　been　_*purposely_　performed　or　lied　about。　When　Brutus　sees　Csar's　ghost；　Macbeth；　Banquo's　ghost；　Nicholas；　his　son；　these　are　distinctly　hallucinations　or　illusions　of　the　same　kind　as　those　‘‘really　and　truly''　seen　by　our　nurses。　The　stories　of　such　people　have　no　significance　for　the　criminalist；　but　if　a　person　has　seen　an　entering　thief；　an　escaping　murderer；　a　bloody　corpse；　or　some　similar　object　of　criminal　law；　and　these　are　hallucinations　like　classical　ghosts；　then　are　we　likely　to　be　much　deceived。　Hoppe＇2＇　enumerates　hallucinations　of　apparently　sound　（？）　people。　1。　A　priest　tired　by　mental　exertion；　saw；　while　he　was　writing；　a　boy's　head　look　over　his　shoulder。　If　he　turned　toward　it　it　disappeared；　if　he　resumed　writing　it　reappeared。　2。　‘‘A　thoroughly　intelligent''


＇1＇　James　Sully。　Illusions。

＇2＇　J；　J。　Hoppe。　Erklrungen　des　Sinnestauschungen。

　man　always　was　seeing　a　skeleton。　3。　Pascal；　after　a　heavy　blow；　saw　a　fiery　abyss　into　which　he　was　afraid　he　would　fall。　4。　A　man　who　had　seen　an　enormous　fire；　for　a　long　time　afterward　saw　flames　continually。　5。　Numerous　cases　in　which　criminals；　especially　murderers；　always　had　their　victims　before　their　eyes。　6。　Justus　Mser